AH - Pre-History and Early Cultures

Geographical factors;  Hunting and gathering (Paleolithic and Mesolithic); Beginning of agriculture (Neolithic).

Discuss the changes in habitation, economic and cultural life and technology from Palaeolithic to Mesolithic Age. Name some sites associated with them.

Palaeolithic [Age of Chipped Stone Tools]

Lived in Natural Caves.

Hunting and Food gathering communities => NOMADIC.

No Pottery since no need.

Quartz stone tools  big and unrefined. Technique of Core. Middle P: T of Flake Upper P: T of Blade. *Acheulian - arch industry of stone tool manuf. of Lower P.

Paintings = Artistic taste. Upper P: Engraving on outer shell of Ostrich egg. Eg: Patne; Discovery of Graves (Kurnool).

Palaeolithic as well as Mesolithic as well as Neolithic Sites: Chopani Mando, Allahabad, UP - Belan Valley, a sequence of occupation from Upper P to Neolithic.

Palaeolithic Sites: Nevasa / Patne (Kolhapur district) - Large amount of ostrich egg shells found here gives evidence that Ostriches lived in India during Palaeolithic period. Didwana, Nagaur – near Jodhpur - Famous for its Hindu traditional culture and philosophy and the Mathas.  Sufi triangle - Ajmer, Nagaur and Didwana. Attirampakkam, Kortallayar river basin, north west of Chennai - Characterised as a type-site of the Acheulian* hand axe-based 'Madras Industries'; Unique to study transitions through time (multicultural site, Acheulian artefacts are of quartzite which are not available locally, Discovery of three fossil teeth). Pallavaram (Just near Chennai), Kanchipuram District - First a stone implement from the Palaeolithic Age inside a ballast pit was found. Since then, a number of Stone Age artefacts have been uncovered. Edakkal, Wayanad district of Kerala - Three pre-historic caves discovered on tallest Ambukuthi mala - Stone Age pictorial writings on the walls -depicts pre-historic tribal chieftains, elephants, queens and tools. Ernakulam: Starting from the Stone Age, has been the site of human settlement -  Monolithic monuments like Dolmens and rock-cut caves. Dari Dungri, Sambalpur District - A large number of lower and middle Palaeolithic tools were found. Hathnora, Narmada Valley - Fossil site, first fossil in India; Indicate that India might have been inhabited in middle Pleistocene around 250,000ya. Odai, Villipuram District, Tamil Nadu - Fossiliferous site at 1km inward from Bay of Bengal; Second oldest human fossil, next to Narmada fossil, from India. Odai and Hathnora probably bear significant implications for current 'Out of Africa' versus "Multiregional" debate concerning the place of origin and antiquity of humans. Navdatoli, opposite to Maheswar, South bank of Narmada; Painted pottery and microliths. Other Sites: Nasik  Sohan valley (Many Sites in this Valley mainly in Pakistan)  Sabaramati Valley  Hunsgi, Gulbarga  Lingsugur in Raichur district - first site to be discovered from India.  Malprabha Ghatprabha River Basin  Pahalgam  Paisra  Kalpi  Rojdi Hills  Luni Valley  Chalisgaon  Rojdi  Hiran Valley  Lalmai Hills

Mesolithic

1st time artificial habitation. Eg: Adamgarh, Langnaz, Birbhanpur, Bagore.

Temp. ↑ ~10000 ya => Population ↑ => community life => domestication of animals => PASTORAL.

REDUCTION Procedure - very small = microliths (chert, jasper) composite tools. Knowledge of fire => Roast food; K of Bow and Arrow; Projectiles => Hunt easily.

Most P ~ hunting, fighting and communal dance.

Palaeolithic as well as Mesolithic Sites: Bhimbetka, Raisen district in MP - Earliest traces of human life on the Indian subcontinent => beginning of South Asian Stone Age. Southern edge of Vindhya hills, inside Ratapani WS. Caves - early evidence of dance (WHS). Source of the raw materials (some monoliths) – Barkheda. Adamgarh, Hoshangabad district in MP - Famous for the pre-historic rock shelters and paintings found in the hills. Stone Age artefacts, Lower P & Mesolithic implements. Paisra (In Munger District), Bihar.

Mesolithic Sites Bagor, river Kothari – Bhilwara district, RJ - Largest Mesolithic site in India. Evidence for the domestication of sheep, cattle and goats by the nomadic pastoralists of Bagor dating as early as 5000 to 3000 BC. Sarai Nahar Rai, Allahabad­ (district: Pratapgarh) - Most extensively studied Mesolithic site in the state. Stone is not available in Pratapgarh => lithic tools made from Vindhyan rocks. Skeletons buried in burials - earliest remnants of Homo Sapiens in India. People had large and robust skulls and they were relatively tall. Their lithic artefacts include microliths of different types. Birbhanpur, banks of Damodar River Burdwan district, WB. Tilwara, Rajasthan - Rich in Microliths. Two phases - 1st phase is Mesolithic; 2nd phase has yielded wheel-made pottery and pieces of iron with Microliths. Mahadaha, Pratapgarh district UP - Human skeletal remains found; Langhnaj (Western IVC area) and Mahadaha are two late Mesolithic site = emergence of agriculture. Langhnaj, Mehsana district, Gujarat - Bones of wild animals dating back to Mesolithic period (2550-2185BCE); Temples here - Nilkanth Mahadev, Jain etc. Other Sites: Langhnaj, Akhaj, Valasana, and Hirpur (All are in Mehsana district): Langhnaj is the most extensively studied site in the state.  Loteshwar  Ratanpura  Uttar Pradesh Mahadaha  Mahagara  Morhana Pahar and Lekhahia (Both are almost together)  Chopani Mando (Important)  Damdama  Mayurbhanj (Many sites like Nagbhan)  Keonjhar (Many sites like Gambharia)  Chhota Nagpur plateau

Neolithic [shifting cultivation, animal husbandry and settled life]

Housing: Existence of mud-brick huts and stone pit-dwellings => emergence of villages. [archaeology helps]

Temp. ↑↑ ~7kya => population ↑↑ further => more food needs => AGRICULTURE. [Neolithic Revolution *coined by V Gordon Childe] Pottery: New Ideas and Social Life - Need of Pottery to store: 1st handmade, later wheel: pottery, carts - 1st vehicle.

About their subsistence practices: Food grains and animal bone remains certify cultivation of rice, wheat, barley, cotton etc., & domestication of cattle, sheep, goat, ass [arch helps] However, the discovery of huge ash mounds in Karnataka & AP => animal husbandry was primary occupation instead of plant agriculture.

Tools used by Neolithic man: Highly sophisticated microliths, grinding stones, blades etc., highlight the advancement in tool-making and food processing technology. Handle for 1st time - 'celts' => indicate - K of Principle of Torque. [arch helps][N.R.] [cite examples from list of places]

Other crafts: Different varieties of pottery at various sites, ornaments like beads of agate etc => artistic taste of the Neolithic man. [arch helps]. Terracotta figurines of Mother Goddess, serpent etc., and grave goods found along with dead => belief in the ‘life after death’. [arch helps]

To what extent archaeological materials are useful in understanding the progress of Neolithic man in India? [2010, 30m] Utmost importance since the age is pre-historic. Prevalence of slash and burn type -- substantiated by discovery of charcoal in most of the Neolithic sites. Barter system and external contacts of Neolithic man with chalcolithic culture and possibly IVC also is evident from the discovery of turquoise, lapis lazuli, conch shells etc., in Kashmir valley and the bronze and copper implements in Karnataka. Present day tribal culture – material similarities in a behavioural perspective =>corroboration of the arch. data with ethnographic analogy = solid base for the understanding of the various adaptation strategies and the man-land relationship.

With respect to Neolithic age, describe the Pastoral and Agricultural communities of North West, North East, East, West, Peninsular India, Kashmir Valley with a site name for each. Mehrgarh in the Kachhi plain (7000-3200 BC), Baluchistan - One of the earliest sites with evidence of farming (wheat and barley) and herding (cattle, sheep and goats) in Indian subcontinent. Famous for one of the earliest cultivation of cotton. Most unique discovery is the known origin of the dental surgery. During the period 2500 BCE – 2000 BCE there has been a migration towards newly settled Harappan sites. Burzahom, northeast of Srinagar - First Neolithic site to be discovered in Kashmir. Megalithic culture followed the Neolithic culture. Certain features which differentiate it from other Neolithic cultures of India. For example: people were not acquainted with agriculture & followed hunting and fishing economy. Graves contained human bones as well as bones of dogs and antlered deer. Probably pet animals were buried along their masters. Another site is Gufkral, nearby. Koldihawa and Mahagara in Allahabad district, Uttar Pradesh - Evidence of cultivation of rice. Domesticated rice and handmade pottery occurred here within the Neolithic levels i.e. 9000BC. Chirand, River Ghaghra, Chapra district, Bihar - Neolithic and Chalcolithic site and also Iron Age settlements. Practiced agriculture - evidence of wheat, rice, mung, masur, peas. Pottery - Post-firing painting in ochre colour mainly on grey ware. Daojali Hading in Assam - Uni-facially flaked hand-axe in the Garo hills; Shifting cultivation - jhum, (still practiced). Sangankallu or Hiregudda, KARNATAKA - Complex of hills (peacock hills) is 8 km from Bellary. Different types of burial structures have been found. People who settled were the earliest agriculturists. Has the earliest houses of mud and stone. Manufacture stone tools on a large scale shows the rich Neolithic culture and skills. NEOLITHIC ROCK ART can be seen on boulders, hand percussion marks of rituals and social ceremonies (ringing rocks). Palavoy, KARNATAKA - Bone axe made from cattle scapulae finished by grinding at the worked edge. Ash mounds (*related to Neolithic culture in SI = by early pastoral and agricultural communities by the burning of dung and animal matter) give the evidence that cattle were herded there. Piklihal, KARNATAKA - A village near Mudgal in Raichur district. Ghargaon (Shrigonda), Ahmadnagar district - Microlithic prehistoric site; Shivlinga, i.e. Temple of Lord Shiva- also called as Naganath Maharaj. Hallur, Haveri district Karnataka - Evidence of ash mounds, microlith blades. Also represents Megalithic and Chalcolithic phase. Imlidih Khurd, Gorakhpur district - Banks of river Kuwana, Neolithic as well as Chalcolithic; Period I - Pre-Narhan Culture (1300BC) - crude handmade red ware, wattle and daub houses, bones of domesticated animals. Period II - Narhan Culture (1300-800BC) - intense structural activity, White painted BRW. Utnur, Telangana - Evidence of ash mounds, agriculture and herding. Small amount of ground stone axes, stone blades and a handmade coarse pottery. Tekkalakota, Bellary district, Karnataka - Famous for ancient square shaped fort. Circular huts, small cemetery and early cattle and plant domestication ~1500BC. Mahisdal in Birbhum district, West Bengal. Other Sites: Baluchistan: Kili Gul Muhammad in the Quetta Valley,  Rana Ghundai in the Loralai valley  Anjira in the Surab valley.  Mundigak  Indus plains Gumla,  Rehman Dheri,  Tarakai Qila  Sarai Khola  North India Gufkral, southeast of Srinagar  Kanishkapura or modern Kanispur, in the Baramulla district.  Central India Kunjun in the Sidhi district of Madhya Pradesh.  Mid-Gangetic Basin Sohagaura, on the banks of River Rapti;  Eastern India Kuchai in Orissa  Golbai Sasan in Orissa  Pandu Rajar Dhibi in West Bengal  Barudih in Jharkhand.  North East India Sarutaru in Assam,  Napchik in Manipur  South India Maski,  T.Narsipur,  Kodekal  Budihal  Nagarjunakonda  Paiyampalli

Copper Age and Artistic development in Pottery (Chalcolithic Cultures)

Chalcolithic (part of pre-history wedged between the first farming societies called Neolithic, and the urban and literate societies of the Bronze Age (IVC in India)

In  the  absence  of  a  written  script  Chalcolithic  pottery  gives  us  a  fascinating  insight into the culture and life styles of the people of those times. Comment critically. [2013, 15m] Utmost importance as a SOURCE since this is pre-historic age. Technological development: Red from outside and black from inside => inverted firing technique [OCP type]. Latter period was wheel made and well fired. [PGW type]. Limited use of colours (predominantly black) => less knowledge on how to make colours. Shape of pottery - Large pots with wide mouths = storing grains => agriculture yielded surplus. Perforated jars = brewing purposes to make wine => Lifestyle. Motifs on Pots - Horned deities, peepal trees, swastika sign, peacocks => religious and spiritual beliefs.

LIMITATIONS of C. Pottery: tells us about the material culture of society. Cannot /Should not be used to arrive at any concrete conclusion. Context where found also needs to be studied.

Rural culture though some urban settlements like Daimabad, Inamgaon etc been discovered. Burials yield grave goods and Skeletons for analysis. [Alternative SOURCE]

Characterised by the use of first metal to be discovered by human being i.e. Copper [ALTERNATIVE SOURCE to study along Pottery]

Agriculture, Pastoralism, Hunting and food gathering were practised.

Describe the Pastoral and Agricultural Communities of Chalcolithic age and show its distribution across the subcontinent.

Chalcolithic Sites Pandu rajar dhibi (1st Chalcolithic site to be disco in West Bengal) - Near the southern bank of Ajay River; There were two main periods –  the Chalcolithic period around 1600 BC – 750 BC, and the Iron Age; Excavations here reveal the non-Aryan origin of the non-Brahmin Bengalis; Agriculture and trade were the mainstays of their economy. Does it represent the ruins of a trading township? Ganeshwar-Jodhpura complex, Sikar, North East Rajasthan - Near Khetri copper belt in the Sikar, Jaipur and Jhunjhunu districts. An early centre of agriculture and copper metallurgy in the subcontinent. Can be ascribed to the pre-Harappan period; Possible that they supplied copper to the Harappans. Excavations reveal copper objects - arrowheads, fish hooks, and bangles. Red pottery was found here with black portraiture. Ahar – Banas Culture, Mewar Region, South East Rajasthan - Copper ores from Aravalli Range; Ahar, Gilund, Balathal the three major excavated sites; To make axes and other artefacts; Shell objects were locally made but shell came from Gujarat coast. Discovery of carnelian beads, a lapiz lazuli bead, and Rangpur type lustrous red ware suggests connection with Harappan sites in Gujarat. Ahar is called the “black and red ware culture”. BRW with linear and dotted designs painted on it. Pottery had a black top and reddish bottom, with paintings in white on the black surface. Amri, 100 KM south of Mohenjodaro, Pakistan - Pottery discovered here had its own characteristics and known as Amri Ware.  Like other Pre Harappa towns, no writings were found at this site. Close to Baluchistan where development of earlier farming communities from 6000BC to 4000BC ultimately led to urbanization. Daimabad, Ahmednagar district of Maharashtra - Left bank of the Pravara River, a tributary of the Godavari River. Five distinct Chalcolithic cultural phases, based on painted ceramics: Savalda culture, Late Harappan culture (Southernmost Harappa site), Daimabad culture, Malwa culture, Jorwe culture. All features of chalcolithic culture – houses of mud walls, plant remains, copper-bronze objects, terracotta, wheel, burials Inamgaon, Pune district - Post-Harappan Chalcolithic site, Ghod river, tributary of Bhima. Early phase - large mud and circular houses are excavated, Oval shaped pits (Chulhas) found inside houses. Biggest house had 5 rooms + granary. Later phase - a fortification wall was built around settled area. Microwear study of stone tools show - used to cut plants, meat. Last phase - people started making jewellery out of gold. Also involved in trade from other part of country. Most common animal figure on terracotta is bull. Rana Ghundai, pre-Harappan site in Baluchistan. Narhan, Gorakhpur district, UP - Ceramic pieces and animal bones. Thatched roof wattle and daub. Nashik, river Godavari - Chalcolithic as well as Neolithic; Patanjali's Mahabhasya referred to it as Nasikiya. Famous for Buddhist rock cut caves which follow a wooden style of architecture.

Crafts, Pottery, and Iron industry (Megalithic Cultures)

Megalithic (monuments that have one thing in common- they are made of large/mega, roughly dressed slabs of stone/liths)

In  what  ways  can  the  Megalithic  culture  be  considered  a  foundational  phase  of  the history of peninsular India? [2014, 15m] Well-developed traditions of specialized crafts - Different kinds of pottery have been found, including BRW. Evidence of bead making = Grave goods include etched carnelian beads and beads of other materials as well. Development of metallurgy (<= crafts = Copper and bronze artefacts such as utensils, bowls, and bangles; a few silver and gold ornaments also occur = knew alloying <= evidence of local smelting of iron at Paiyampalli (Karnataka). Beginning of trade (<= crafts) - megalithic settlements on the trade routes. Distribution of non-local items of precious & semi-precious metals =>Inter-regional trade. Rock paintings - show fighting scenes, cattle raids, hunting scenes, scenes of people dancing in groups, horse raiders, flora, birds, sun motifs etc.

Settlement patterns of the megalithic cultures - Villages of a sizeable population; Huts with thatched or reed roofs, supported on wooden posts (postholes) Located close to irrigation tanks = intensive agriculture ~ black soil, red sandy-loamy soil zones => Sedentary living.

Characterised by huge presence of megalithic burial = Community work  - Construction itself community endeavour <=> social and cultural lives of people / rituals. The practice of making it continues in certain tribal communities of India. [f. phase]

Widespread use of iron - utensils, weapons (arrowheads, spearheads, swords, knives, etc.), carpentry tools (axes, chisels, adzes, etc.), and agricultural implements (sickles, hoes, coulters). [f. phase]

Beginning of sedentary life <= Me.Co. lived on agriculture, hunting, fishing & animal husbandry plus evidence of craft traditions plus the mega monuments. [f. phase]

Neolithic as well as Megalithic Sites: Brahmagiri, Chitradurga district of Karnataka - Large number of megalithic monuments. Neoliths f. evidence the farming-herding communities in the pre-megalithic period here. Rock edicts of Emperor Ashoka here, denoted the southernmost extent of the Mauryan Empire. At Brahmagiri and Maski were found postholes indicating the presence of timber construction for ordinary buildings.   Discuss  the  extent,  settlement  patterns  and  subsistence  economy  of  the  megalithic cultures. [2012, 30m] Subsistence economy - Agriculture (intro ‘tank-irrigation’ in SI - rice, lentil, barley, gram, millets); Animal husbandry (Cattle (incl buffalo) predominates; pig and fowl => pig rearing and poultry farming on a small scale); Hunting (Bones of wild animals; equipment for hunting; rock paintings of hunting scenes - peahens, peacocks, stags and antelopes); Fishing (terracotta net sinkers from Takalghat and fish-hooks from Khapa; actual skeletal remains of fish from Yelleshwaram) Extent - occur in the far south, the Deccan Plateau, the Vindhyan and Aravalli ranges, and the north-west.

Megalithic Sites Porkalam / Porkulam (a village in Thrissur district in Kerala) - Human remains, decorated pearls, iron tools and earthen pots (very similar to those found at Takshasila) dates ~ 2400 ya. The earliest vestiges of constructions in Kerala. Can be grouped into two types – tomb cells and megaliths. Rock cut tomb cells are generally located in the laterite zones of central Kerala, for example at Porkalam. Adichanallur, Tambraparani River, in the Tuticorin District (formerly Tirunelveli), TN - # of skeletons dating ~ 3,800 ya f. buried in earthenware urns. Skeletons placed in crouched position. No orientation seems to have been followed. There are two examples of double burial. Bronze objects, iron objects besides thousands of potsherds. Sherds f. with writing in Tamil Scripts (500-300 BC). Korkai, capital of the Early Pandyas ~ 15 km from Adichanallur. Vasudevanallur, TN - In SI, earliest iron objects appear in overlap between Neolithic and megalithic phases. Megaliths are widely distributed in SI. Vasudevanallur Fort played role during Anglo-French-Mysore struggle. Majagaha, Durg, CT - Iron bearing Megalithic site. Marayoor / Muniyaraa, Idukki, Kerala - Megalithic dolmens = burial chambers made of four stones and covered by fifth stone called cap stone. Naikund (nearly 42km north of NAGPUR) - Iron age megalithic site in Vidarbha region. Iron smelting furnaces. Nelakanker, MP-CT border

Discuss the distribution and significance of farming cultures outside the Indus system. [2008, 60m]

Trace the development of urbanization from the third millennium B.C.E. to 6th century B.C.E. [2011, 60m]

Assess the pattern of settlement, economy, social organization and religion of India during 2000 to 500 BC from archaeological evidences. [2003, 60m]

Describe the distinguishing features of important archaeological cultures of the Indian subcontinent datable between c. 2000 B.C. and c. 500 B.C. [1995, 60m]

The period from 2000BC to 500BC includes five major culture. Chalcolithic Culture and Megalithic Culture are compared above. 

The distinguishing features of rest three are:

Harappan Culture	Vedic Culture	Mahajanapadas Culture
– It was an urban civilization characterised by cosmopolitan outlook. Secular. Riverine. Extensive. Planned. It was recognised by secondary activity and great trade and commerce.	– This was rural in nature with tribal characteristics in initial period. Foundation of present social order was laid in this period. Agriculture was practised. Later phase was characterised with complex rituals and sacrifices.	– This was the period when great provinces had emerged due to flourishing economic base. It was characterised by advance agricultural technique like wed-paddy cultivation. Urbanised. Regional Kingdoms. Both type of system – Monarchical and Republican were found.