Syllabus:
(i) English Industrial Revolution: Causes and Impact on Society (ii) Industrialization in other countries: USA, Germany, Russia, Japan (iii) Industrialization and Globalization
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The period 1500 to 1700 in Europe has been called ‘the heyday of the Commercial Revolution.’ Explain the causes that led to this Revolution and examine its impact on society. [1979 , 60 Marks]
Geopolitical, monetary, and technological factors drove the Age of Discovery. During this period (1450-17th century), the European economic centre shifted from the Islamic Mediterranean to Western Europe (Portugal, Spain, France, the Netherlands, and to some extent England). This shift was caused by the successful circumnavigation of Africa, which opened up sea-trade with the east: after Portugal's Vasco da Gama rounded the Cape of Good Hope and landed in Calicut, India in May 1498, a new path of eastern trade was possible ending the monopoly of the Ottoman Turks and their European allies, the Italian city-states.
From the 16th to 18th centuries, Europeans made remarkable maritime innovations. These innovations enabled them to expand overseas and set up colonies, most notably during the 16th and 17th centuries. They developed new sail arrangements for ships, skeleton-based shipbuilding, the Western “galea” (at the end of the 11th century), sophisticated navigational instruments, and detailed charts and maps. After Isaac Newton published the Principia, navigation was transformed, because sailors could predict the motion of the moon and other celestial objects using Newton's theories of motion.
Significant contributors to European exploration include Prince Henry the Navigator of Portugal, who was the first of the Europeans to venture out into the Atlantic Ocean, in 1420. Others are Bartholomeu Dias, who first rounded the Cape of Good Hope; Vasco da Gama, who sailed directly to India from Portugal; Ferdinand Magellan, the first to circumnavigate the Earth; Christopher Columbus, who significantly encountered the Americas; Jacques Cartier, who sailed for France, looking for the Northwest Passage.
The Commercial Revolution, coupled with other changes in the Early Modern Period, had dramatic effects on the globe. Christopher Columbus and the conquistadors, through their travels, were indirectly responsible for the massive depopulation of South America. They were directly responsible for destroying the civilizations of the Inca, Aztec, and Maya in their quest to build the Spanish Empire.
An equally important consequence of the Commercial Revolution was the Columbian Exchange. Plants and animals moved throughout the world due to human movements. For example, Yellow fever, previously unknown in North and South America, was imported through water that ships took on in Africa. Cocoa (chocolate), coffee, maize, cassava, and potatoes moved from one hemisphere to the other.
For more than 2000 years, the Mediterranean Sea had been the focus of European trade with other parts of the world. After 1492, this focus shifted to the Atlantic Ocean by routes south around the Cape of Good Hope, and by trans-Atlantic trade.
Another important change was the increase in population. Better food and more wealth allowed for larger families. The migration of peoples from Europe to the Americas allowed for European populations to increase as well. Population growth provided the expanding labour force needed for industrialization.
Another important outcome of Europe's commercial revolution was a foundation of wealth needed for the industrial revolution. Economic prosperity financed new forms of cultural expression during this period.
A period of European economic expansion, colonialism, and mercantilism which lasted from approximately the 16th century until the early 18th century.
Give an account of the revolutionary developments in agriculture in western Europe between 16th and 18th centuries. How far were they affected by the Commercial Revolution? [1980, 60 Marks]
Because of three major changes: the selective breeding of livestock; the removal of common property rights to land; and new systems of cropping, involving turnips and clover.
Before the Commercial revolution, most goods were produced for family use or to be sold within local towns and villages. However, once trade routes blossomed between European countries and their colonies, a whole new market opened up.
The Commercial Revolution also caused a population explosion. Simply put, as wealth flooded the continent, it allowed for larger families. In turn, these larger families created a work force to sustain and grow Europe's new global economy.
In 1750 English population stood at about 5.7 million and that an expanding population from this time on was largely fed by home production, it was no less than a revolution (Agri).
But then an essentially organic agriculture was gradually replaced by a farming system that depended on energy-intensive inputs dependent on the exploitation of fossil fuels.
In the century after 1750 is that as each agricultural worker produced more food, so the proportion of the workforce in agriculture fell. This falling proportion of workers in agriculture enabled the proportion working in industry and services to rise: in other words improved agricultural production made the industrial revolution possible.
To what extent were the advances in scientific knowledge in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries a product of the needs of a changing society? [1994, 60 Marks]
Give a critical account of the progress of mercantilism in the 17th century. How far is it correct to say that it paved the way for the Industrial Revolution? [1981, 60 Marks]
Mercantilist philosophy was based upon a belief that private and social interests are not necessarily in harmony. Comment. [1983, 20m]
“The novelty in sixteenth century mercantilism its extension from city to nation and the transfer of its chief agency from local guild to national monarch.” Comment. [1986, 20 Marks]
“Attempts to put mercantilist doctrine into practice characterized the history of most of the nations of Western European in the 16th and 17th centuries.” Comment. [1988, 20 Marks]
Mercantilism is an economic policy that emphasizes the goal of each nation was to gain as much money as possible by whatever means. The belief was that the richer the nation the more powerful it was.
Laws were passed to enforce this concept, such as the English Navigation Acts, and edicts issued by French Minister of Finance Jean-Baptiste Colbert. In France it was known as “Colbertism” after the name of Colbert, the Finance Minister of Louie the XIV. In Germany and Austria it was called “Cameralism”. It was also known as “Bullionism” because of the importance given to gold and silver.
Mercantilism firmly believed that gold was the basis of wealth and power. Hence the mercantilist slogan was ‘more gold, more wealth and more power’.
Trade necessitated the use of money which was available in the form of gold and silver. Along with the expansion of commerce there were improvements in transport, agriculture, population, etc., so the Mercantilist thought was the outcome of these developments.
“Export more, import less and collect the balance in the form of gold and silver”, was the essence of this theory.
Mercantilism paved the way for many western nations for their transformation from ‘commercial capitalism’ to ‘industrial capitalism’.
Mercantilism was a significant driver of Colonialism, as, according to the theory, the colony existed for the benefit of the mother country. This assumption meant that colonies were prohibited from engaging in their own independent commerce, and therefore competing with the mother country.
The English, for their part, used the British East India Company as an agent of the crown, which was expected to govern and protect the people and commerce of the colony. The English also developed a commercial empire in North America, India, and Australia, creating colonies, with the intention of making a profit.
The French followed the English to the New World, and settled Quebec in 1608. They did not populate North America as much as the English did, as they did not allow the Huguenots to travel to the New World. In addition, the heavy governmental regulations placed on trade in France discouraged settlement.
The Portuguese Empire was created through commerce bases in South America, Africa, India, and across southeast Asia.
“Protestantism contributed substantially to the rise of capitalism.” Comment. [1994, 20 Marks]
Trace the growth of capitalism in Britain in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Why was France, as compared to Britain, late in developing the capitalist spirit and the institutional framework of capitalism? [1985, 60 Marks]
Trace the growth of Capitalism in England in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. How did it affect the Wage System in the country? [1982, 60 Marks]
Class struggle within feudal society propelled social development - these struggles many peasants were able to relax the stranglehold of the lords, to keep some surplus for themselves, and to improve and extend their cultivation. Additionally some artisans and merchants became wealthy enough to buy land in their own right, breaking the lords’ monopoly on land ownership. And so another process began: some producers improved their production faster than others, and were able to accumulate some capital within the petty mode of production itself; and over time there developed a class of relatively prosperous farmers alongside impoverished peasants. This polarisation helped lay the basis for the wage labour that would be needed under capitalism..
Growth of merchant capital; decline of the old order. The creation of the working class, the rise of capitalism.
In England – Enclosure movement; Location. First in England, where the share of the workforce in agriculture sank to 14 per cent by 1871, compared to 55 per cent employed in ‘industry and trade.
The sheer increase in the industrial workforce meant that the purchasing power of the masses multiplied. Thus industry gained a growing internal market for such goods, limited though it was by the fact that the workers were paid such low wages.
Others: Role of Philosophers, age of reasoning – State not divine, FR.
Protestantism and the Ethics –
A religion of protest. It arose in the 16th century in Europe in the period known as the “Reformation”. Its founding fathers like Martin Luther and John Calvin broke away from the Catholic Church.
Calvinist ethic - This all powerful and mysterious God had predestined each of us to salvation or damnation, so that we cannot by our works alter a divine decree which was made before were born. Whether he is to be saved or damned, man is obliged to work for the glory of God and to create the kingdom of God on earth.
John Calvin’s points helped to create a disciplined and dedicated workforce without which capitalism could not have emerged. Hard work, saving and re-investment and the desire to prosper have a strong affinity with the “spirit of capitalism.”
England had many favourable characters in comparison to other European Countries -
Economic Factors | Social Factors | Religious Factors | Political Factors |
Agriculture Rev of 17th C Enclosure mmt = consolidation of land holdings = freed labour | Daring class of entrepreneurs or Spirit of entrepreneur among Bourgeoisie | Protestant Nation = emphasised on Edu., Hard work; Simplicity, Material prosperity | Glorious Revolution of 1608 - Absolute Monarchy to Parl system = A stable political system |
Commercial Rev of 17th C | Largely peaceful and stable (free from upheavals) | Protestant ~ success in this world = Indicator of blessing of god | High degree of liberty in pub. & pvt. Life => free thinking |
Huge capital due surplus BoT | Rapid Pop. Growth = Demand for goods | => they worked hard, earn more | Free from Continental wars and battles |
Better developed means of communication | Liberal and Progressive society | Positive attitude -> go beyond one territory | Control over colonies - raw material |
Rich mineral resources + Weight losing coal, iron mines closer to each other | Technological advantage 1733 Wheeling machine; |
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Large colonial empire = Market + Continental Location suitable for trade | 1769 Steam Engine, 1814 Loco |
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Explain the main features of the Technological Revolution and discuss its impact on society. [1980, 60 Marks]
Impact of Industrial revolution
Economic | Social | Political |
Production was carried from home to factories | Migration of people - Urbanization | Boost to colonization - raw materials |
Rapid increase in pdtn - cheaper and faster | Changes in institution of marriage & families (nuclear) | Induz -> awakening -> democracy |
Manuf. Based economy | New social classes - workers | Fight for market - international rivalry |
Capitalism [~earlier Mercantilism] | Exploitation of W & Child | European revolution of 1848 |
Boost to trade and commerce | Individualism, Romanticism, Socialism, Communism | Reforms Act of 1832 |
Romanticism was critical of material advantage - it treated factories as demons.
Industrialisation [I.R.] 1st occurred in Britain (middle of 18th C - monopoly over production process)
In France during Napoleon Rule | In Germany w/ establishment of Zollaverin, later G unific. | In USA after civil war | 1st in Asia in JP in 1868 | Last in Europe - RUSS 1918 |
Features of Industrialization in Britain | Features of Induz. In Japan (Meiji Res in 1868) | I in Russia (RR 1917) |
Factory Based | Factory based | Factory based - Centralized, Planned |
Mass Production | Mass Production - State provided capital | Mass Production - Role of state important; Pvt property absent |
Laissez Faire | Laissez Faire | Role of Market Forces Absent |
Capitalist Ideas | Capitalist ideas | Communist character |
Quality Conscious | Low Q initially - Obj: flood EU markets | Profit motive absent. |
For Market | White Goods | Capital goods |
Formal Relation of Production | Formal - Spirit of Nationalism | No Employer/Employee - informal relationship |
Indigenous Invention | Imported machine |
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Long drawn (gradual process) | Later Q conscious; Achieved in 30y what Eu reached in 150y |
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The Industrial Revolution brought about great changes in the social and economic life of Europe. Explain. [1998, 60 Marks]
The Industrial Revolution “Changed England in character and culture.” [1996, 20 Marks]
Industrial Revolution (IR) began in 1760s as a result of agricultural revolution in Western Europe between 16th and 18th centuries. This was fuelled by colonization of America and India. The Enclosure system in agriculture created landless labourers, who could be utilized in the rising industries.
Politically, the role of Bourgeoisie increased in British Parliament. IR gave rise to new political philosophies like utilitarianism, laissez-faire, liberalism etc.
Wretched economic condition of workers gave rise to socialist movements in Britain. Robert Owen was the first representative of Socialism, later on Chartist movement gave rise to the demands of workers.
In social fields, IR gave a great push to Urbanisation. Rise of new towns such as Manchester, Lancashire, etc which were connected to each other with rail, road and inland waterways.
IR resulted in breakdown of joint family structure. The workers had to live in slums and were prone to diseases and epidemics.
In technological field, IR gave push to scientific discoveries.
Thus, the influence of religion decreased in society in the wake of prosperity offered by sciences.
The use of steam power improved printing and expanded newspaper and book publishing. This resulted in improved literacy, which showed the development of a new educated middle class
IR shifted economic center to England and economic base from agriculture to industry.
Machines changed the people's way of living and methods of manufacturing.
The stable rural structure developed into a mobile urban structure.
IR increased job opportunities in factories.
Trade unions developed for addressing the grievances of labourers in factories and mines.
Population inflow increased leading to development of cities and hence urbanization.
“The oppressive exploitation of the working class in the wake of Industrial Revolution had jolted the social conscience of England.” Elucidate. [2015, 10 Marks]
How did the Industrial Revolution affect women and children in England? How was the horrors of industrialisation depicted in popular English literature?
Industrial revolution commenced in mid eighteenth century in England ushered an era of progress, prosperity and growth. However not every sections of society were able to benefit and some were adversely affected.
Though women and children had habit of working hard in fields, rural area Work in the factories, with long, unbroken hours of the same kind of work, under strict discipline and sharp forms of punishment, was completely different.
Women got a sense of liberation, economic independence and rights while children’s laws were getting attention to be reformed. The negative impacts out ways these hopes.
As the use of machinery spread, and fewer workers were needed, industrialists preferred to employ women and children who would be less agitated about their poor working conditions and work for lower wages than men.
Machinery like the cotton spinning jenny was designed to be used by child workers with their small build and nimble fingers.
Children were often employed in textile factories because they were small enough to move between tightly packed machinery. The long hours of work, including cleaning the machines on Sundays, allowed them little fresh air or exercise. Children caught their hair in machines or crushed their hands, while some died when they fell into machines as they dropped off to sleep from exhaustion. Increased child labour resulted in many casualties.
Women may well have gained increased financial independence and self-esteem from their jobs; but this was more than offset by the humiliating terms of work they endured, the children they lost at birth or in early childhood and the squalid urban slums that industrial work compelled them to live in.
Housing conditions for labourers were very poor, and poor sanitation resulted in widespread disease outbreaks like cholera, typhoid, etc.
The traditional craftsmen could not compete with cheap industrial products, and hence turned unemployed. Along with that traditional crafts also saw demise.
Women were denied employment in industries of heavy machinery, or they were paid less than men. Thus they shifted to other sectors like domestic workers, prostitution, etc. and resulted in gender inequality.
Horrors of industrialisation depicted in English literature:
I.R multiplied output of a worker but the growth did not match with adequate provisioning of housing, sanitation, water. (contrast with India)
In Cultural domain, the wretched condition of workers and huge prosperity of capitalist gave rise to a new class of literature where these inequalities were presented eloquently. This shattered the conscience of British people.
In his novel Hard Times, Charles Dickens described a town with all bricks, cement structure, machinery and chimneys, dark and smelly air, suffocating environment and dying rivers.
D.H. Lawrence, British essayist and novelist wrote about how the tiny villages got converted into towns with disruption of their structures. The new structures were unfamiliar, uncomfortable and different than the previous ones.
“The Industrial Revolution put mobility in the place of stability.” Comment. [1990, 20 Marks]
IR saw a shift in economic structure from subsistence to surplus. IR first developed in England in 1760s, where the stable agrarian society shifted to a highly populated industrial one.
The discovery of abundant coal and iron deposits in England is one of the very important reasons of IR. The new innovations and technologies replaced the cottage industries that employed skilled artisans. Spinning jenny, power looms and steam power increased the rate of production of textiles. Iron and steel finds its application in buildings, machines, railways, ships etc. Road construction also becomes quicker.
New infrastructure helped increasing the pace of transportation. Hence trade and other businesses also progressed. Ships facilitated the discovery of new world. New places contribute more raw materials and labour, and also acted as market places. People started rushing in to cities for better employment opportunities, which contributed to greater mobility.
IR developed mobility within and across borders. After different phases of IR and later globalization, we are left with porous borders facilitating greater mobility.
“Whoever says Industrial Revolution, says cotton.” Comment. [2011, 20 Marks]
The industrial Revolution often is remarked as being great advancement in cotton based Industries such as Textile and yarn processing.
With great inventions like power loom, spinning wheel and sewing machines, etc. and related development such as Iron and Steel manufacturing, agricultural revolution, etc. it is tempting to term the entire industrial revolution as cotton based advancement.
The ‘factories’ with which the new Factory Acts dealt were, until the 1860s, assumed to be exclusively textile factories and predominantly cotton mills. Even the steam engine, though applied to numerous other industries by 1815, was not used in any quantity outside mining, which had pioneered it.
The huge production of cotton based products (owning to inventions in the area) and their consumption in England and other parts of the world encouraged the Industrialists and government to invest more on technologies which would further increase the production.
However, it would amount to undermine other great inventions during the period of industrial revolution which greatly aided the mankind but in a different way.
The revolution in Agricultural products and fertilizers along with animal husbandry was a great leap forward in order to feed the increased population owing to the Industrial revolution.
The invention of machines to improve the transport and communications paved ways to build the modern infrastructures such as Mobile Communication, Internet, etc. on which we are thriving today.
Industrial revolution was also about the social and ideological changes in the society and new ideas of liberty, fraternity, and sovereignty etc. Socialism was a direct outcome of Industrial revolution.
Hence, it would be apt to summarize that though Cotton was the biggest motivation for most of the scientific inventions, other after effects of Industrial revolution are equally important and long lasting to the man kind.
Note: Revolutionary Character of IR was not due to speed but fundamental changes largely due to Revolution of Cotton Textiles. Most early inventions (wheeling machine, spinning jenny) related to Cotton.
The process of industrialisation in some other countries of Europe was different from that in England.” [2012, 20 Marks]
The process of Industrialization in countries other than Britain started late and had been different than its British counterpart. The primary reasons cited by Historians are the absence of some of the spectacular features such as technical inventions and expertise, government and enterprise support, and internal problems of the countries. However, the industrialization took off and its growth was steady to marvellous.
The industrialization of France, Germany and Belgium were really started in the last quarter of the nineteenth century although in France and Belgium the process was started around last quarter of eighteenth century or first quarter of nineteenth century.
France, though started early, the revolution and Napoleon wars mitigated all the benefits of early industrialization. However, with the railway infrastructure boom started in 1836, France steadily progressed and by the end of the century, it became the most industrialized nation after Britain, Germany and Belgium.
Similarly, the industrialization in Germany started late after 1871 when its unification was made. But, in no time, it reached to its zenith and before World War – I, it became an industrial rival of Britain.
To summarize, the process of industrialization though began late in other countries of Europe, it nevertheless attained its peak by the end of Nineteenth Century.
What was the extent of industrialisation in Western Europe by the end of the nineteenth century? [2009, 30 Marks]
Inspired by the Industrial revolution in Great Britain, the countries of Western Europe such as France, Germany, Italy, Spain, Belgium, etc. rapidly industrialized themselves and by the end of the nineteenth century, many of them were competing with England in the production and scientific progress.
The Industrialization in countries of Western Europe started late owning to the internal problems they were facing. Belgium for instance started itself on the path of modernization after its independence in 1830 and riding on its rich coal deposit and large scale railway lines construction, soon became a major supplier of metallurgy.
The Italy and Germany followed the suit after their unification which around the same time in 1870-71 and promoted their industrialization. The capital investment in both the countries steeply increased owning to stable political situation and encouragement from the rulers. Italy though could not progressed much, Germany rapidly embraced machines and chemicals in its infrastructure and agricultural development. By the end of the century, it was almost equal to England in Industrial production, machinery, growth of financial institutions, Chemicals, and scientific and technical education and invention.
France on the other hand could not take benefit of the revolution in 1789 owing to the indifference of the ruling elites. The production remain stagnant in comparison to England. However, with Napoleon III, the development scenario changed. State encouragement in private investment boosted railway infrastructure and production of Iron and Steel. The production in Coal, textile and chemical similarly increased.
To conclude, the industrialization in the countries of Western Europe though started late in comparison to its counterpart in England, it nevertheless had its way with active encouragement from the rulers and private investment. It was the result of industrialization and huge production that need for colonization aroused in order to acquire raw material and a suitable market for the finished products.
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