Syllabus:
(i) European States System; (ii) American Revolution and the Constitution, FR (iv) American Civil War with reference to Abraham Lincoln and the abolition of slavery
(v) British Democratic Politics, 1815- 1850; Parliamentary Reformers, Free Traders, Chartists
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Domestically, the root of the Thirty Years War, just as with many Middle Eastern conflicts today, lay in religious intolerance.
Like the original Thirty Years War, which was in fact a series of separate but interconnected struggles, recent conflict in the Middle East has included fighting in Israel, the occupied territories and Lebanon, the long and bloody Iran-Iraq War, the two Gulf wars, and now civil wars in Iraq and Syria.
As with the Thirty Years War, events in Iraq and Syria have been marked by sectarian conflict and intervention by peripheral states (and still more distant countries) fighting proxy wars. Both the Thirty Years War and the present Middle Eastern conflicts have been hugely costly in human life.
The Peace of Westphalia that ended the Thirty Years War in 1648 has also featured in comment of late, usually along with the observation that recent events have brought about the collapse, at least in parts of the Middle East, of ideas of state sovereignty that supposedly originated with Westphalia.
Germany is the prosperous heart of the continent today, but in the early 17th century the “Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation” was the disaster zone of Europe. It was politically fragmented, with the various princes, bishops, towns and the emperor himself all vying for influence, greatly complicated by religious differences between Roman Catholics and followers of various forms of Protestantism. The empire lay at the centre of Europe and was thus the point at which the great-power interests of nearly all the main protagonists in the international system intersected: the French, the Habsburgs, the Swedes, the Ottomans and even the English regarded the area as vital to their security. So Germany both invited intervention by its neighbours and spewed out instability into Europe when the empire erupted in a religious war in 1618 that lasted three decades.
Examine the view that the thirty years’ war (1618-1648) was essentially a contest between the Bourbon and Hapsburg houses for mastery of the Continent of Europe. How for did it settle the issue? [1988, 60 Marks]
“The Peace of Westphalia the region of theology over the European mind and left the road obstructed but passable for the tentative of reason.” Comment. [1997, 20 Marks]
From the Thirty Years War finally emerged the modern state system of Europe. Do you agree? [1992, 60 Marks]
Council of TRENT (1545-1563) : Church - Counter reform => 30 years war! (1618 to 1648)
Fought on German Land | Originally conflict bw Protestant and Catholics | Later France - Hapsburg rivalry | Catholic France side with Protestants |
Peace of Westphalia - ended the 30 years war.
Laid the legal foundation of modern states - Principle of Sovereignty; Principle of 'Reason of State'
Ended supranational authority (Church) on European States.
State above religion (Catholic France intervention against Catholic Hapsburg).
Dominance of Church ended = Liberal rulers grant religious Freedom.
Account for the emergence of the national monarchies in Europe in the sixteenth century. Did the monarchs build the national states less by design than by chance? [1987, 60 Marks]
Enlightenment.
30 Years War.
Decline of Feudalism - Expansion of the trade = new products = new merchant class = new cities [Venice and Pisa] => Neo-rich class => ownership of land became less important => breaking down of the feudal system. New Organization = Guild System = Quality and prices of goods and services.
In the remote estates, many of the landowners had been killed during the Crusades leaving more land in the hands of fewer people + new cities attach their development to the Kings rather than the lords. [Landlords lost to trading class]. Taxes was paid in return for protection, uniform law, measures and weight => wealth was used by the Kings (monarchs who also willed to increase their power) to pay for new modern and well equipped armies and navies <> Thus, crusades led to development of the nation states stimulated by the trade.
American Revolution:
First expression of the spirit of nationalism in modern sense.
War of Independence than a revolution because the independence of colonies was most important change witnessed by it.
A revolution to protect the changes that had taken place in America than revolution to initiate fundamental transformation.
The American Revolution “was a natural and even expected event in the history of colonial people who had come of age.” Comment. [1995, 20 Marks]
CAUSES / Timeline OF AR:-
Nature of British Rule | Come with remarkable suddenness. | A natural and even expected event. |
Discriminatory in nature as America had no representation in British Parliament. Most of inhabitants were Europeans especially British. Yet the home government (B) paid no good care to colonies. A number of colonial laws were enacted by British Parliament to fulfil British interest at the cost of Americans. 1651 and 1663 – Navigation Act were enacted which compelled/ forced to use only British shipping for their trade and commerce. As industries started developing in America laws were enacted by British Parliament to force America to trade only with Britain, example, in commodities like Iron and Heather works. | 1765 Stamp Act which the Americans resented. 1767 Towns and Duties Act passed - imposed duties on all essential commodities sold in American market. This irked the Americans further and intensified the Anti-British sentiments. 1773 Tea Policy - East India Company was allowed to sell its tea directly to American Colonies [strongly opposed by those Americans who benefitted due to smuggled tea (without tax) purchased from Dutch traders (Netherland)]. Colonists protesting a British tea tax dumped 342 chests of tea into the Boston Harbor in what is known as the "Boston Tea Party." Infuriated the British brought the Intolerable Acts. Massachusetts autonomy and self-government were withdrawn. Britain started mobilising troops on American soil. In April 1775, American militiamen clashed with British soldiers at the Massachusetts towns of Lexington and Concord, the first battles in what developed into the American Revolutionary War. In no much time on 4th July 1776 began the American War of Independence and finally the war ended and peace was established through Treaty of Paris in 1783. Note: The only change witnessed in Am as a result of war was fall of independence of 13 colonies; social , cultural, political and economic life continued as before. That is why John Adam (2nd US Pres) commented that AR had already been effected when war began. | The American people were liberal and progressive. Cosmopolitan. Loved their Freedom most. Self-sufficient and Self-made. They cleared land of tough American grass to grow crops. They developed industries and services of their own. The built modern administration and legislative System. They were highly advanced economically as well. Role of Philosophers and ideas. By middle of 18th C. Americans were not behind the citizen living in British mainland in any way. Such kind of advanced group of people cannot be expected to bear the burden of colonial rule for long time. That's why, A.R. was a natural and even expected event in life of colonial people who had come of age (matured). Colonies are like fruits which cling to the tree only till they ripen. |
Till 1763, the British Rule over America was nominal. The American people were paying much less taxes than citizen living in Britain and that is why Americans tolerated British Rule for more than one-and-a-half centuries.
However, after 1763 the nature of British rule became colonial in true sense and the American Colony was growing restless as it needed no more of British Rule.
As Canada had moved under British Rule from France the fear of America joining hand with France was no more.
The conclusion of the French and Indian War in 1763 left Great Britain in dire financial straits; to raise revenue, the Crown levied a host of new taxes on its American colonies.
In particular, the Stamp Act of 1765, imposing a tax on printed and paper goods, outraged the colonists, giving rise to the American revolutionary slogan, "No taxation without representation" (by James Ottis).
“No Taxation without representation.” Comment. [2006, 20 Marks]
No taxation without representation is the famous slogan given by American revolutionaries during its struggle for Independence. The slogan was given in the wake of new taxes imposed by British Parliament on its American colonies which were sternly opposed by the people of America.
The slogan was a direct response to the economic and taxation policies of Lord Greenville in which the regulations such as stamp Act, Sugar Act, Current Act and Quartering Act were proposed in addition to Navigation Act. The regulations were envisioned to extract money from the colonies and use them to raise a large standing army in order to counter any move of revolution or struggle. Also, the Acts were beneficial to British Mercantile class and industries.
However, huge public opposition started in protest of the economic measures and with the efforts of intellectuals such as James Otis and Samuel Adams, it spread far and wide enough to convene a conference of several colonies in order to challenge the basic rights of taxation of the British Government.
It is in the conference that the slogan “No taxation without representation” was given which meant that since British parliament is devoid of any representation from colonies, it does not any legal or moral empowerment to impose taxes.
The revolutionaries of American Independence understood the importance of protesting against the economic sanctions in the early phase of struggle and hence they could succeed with much greater precision.
“The American Revolution was essentially as economic conflict between American capitalism and British mercantilism.” [2012, 10 Marks]
Mercantilism means monopolistic attitude - benefit of few; Laissez faire = free trade = all; Taxation system on Americans by British was for benefit of Br and not Americans [Stamp Act, etc.]
Not a source of profit but a matter of pride for British Crown | Economic conflict between A. capitalism and B. mercantilism | More of a French victory than American |
It was due to these colonies that sun never set on British Empire and their rule was over all world. Britain was apprehensive that a strict colonial rule here could lead America to join hands with France who were ruling over Canada. That's why laws were never enforced strictly and the American people were paying much less taxes than citizen living in Britain. | A.R. / War had started when British government tried to take away the hard earned American resources by imposing taxes. In fact the Constitution of America was guided by the experiences gained during war. The constitution emphasised on protecting American Capitalism. The focus on economic matters was much more than any other sphere of life. | France and Britain were traditional enemies. To take revenge of their humiliating defeat in 7 years war, the French government declared support for America fighting for independence. The Americans had no regular army. The American soldiers were civilians with no proper training. Entry of French soldiers in American war had changed the colours of conflict. The direction of war got altered with entry of best of French soldiers. The professional support provided by French Forces was responsible for British defeat and without French assistance the American War was very well to have ended with American defeat. |
The surrender of British forces at York Town [1787] had doomed the faith of British Military Campaign on American soil. It was irreparable loss to British prestige as well as to the chances of British victory in American war.
The American war of independence (1776-1783) was concluded with the treaty of Paris (1783), by which British had to recognize the freedom of the 13 American colonies.
“The American war of Independence transformed Europeans as well as America.” Comment. [1990, 20 Marks]
The American War of Independence “deprived Great Britain of one empire, but it strengthened the foundations of another”. Comment. [1998, 20 Marks]
“American Revolution seems to have come with remarkable suddenness. A roster of talented leaders emerged during 1763 to 1775 to make it happen.” Elucidate. [2014, 20 Marks]
“A roster of talented leaders emerged: | Inspired Revolutions across the world | Paved the way for Democracies all over world | Deprived Britain of one empire, but strengthened foundations of another |
Benjamin Franklin [Founding Fathers] drafted the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution of the United States. "Founding universities and libraries, the post office, publishing newspapers, pioneering advances in science". George Washington [leader of the Continental Army in A.R.] 1st U.S. president. In 1769, Washington introduced a resolution to the House of Burgesses calling for Virginia to boycott British goods until the Acts were repealed. Thomas Jefferson [drafted the Declaration of Independence] 3rd U.S. president (1801-09). He was also responsible for the Louisiana Purchase. Frenchman Marquis de Lafayette helped shape France's political structure before and after the French Revolution. NICKNAME: "Hero of Two Worlds". American Founding Father Samuel Adams helped organize the Boston Tea Party and signed the U.S. Declaration of Independence. | Ideals like liberty, equality, fraternity, rule of law, concept of natural rights, constitutionalism were the inspiration of revolution. To France by soldiers and Lafayette who served in American Revolution. This played an important role in success of French Revolution during the initial phase. Irish revolution (1798), Latin American Revolutions under Saint Jose Martin and Simon Bolivar. Soon whole of Latin America gained independence. In 1820 a revolution broke out in Spain and in 1830 and by 1848 the whole of Europe was engulfed by the flames of revolution.
| The liberal and progressive ideas of American Revolution inspired the people of Asia and Africa as well later on to fight the colonial regime. Nationalist movements started emerging in colonies all over the world. Like the revolution of America these revolutions would also be guided by democratic principles. The fall of colonial regime resulted in emergence of democratic governments. Moreover, the A.R. gave the first written constitution to world. The Bill of Rights enacted in 1789 guaranteed Fundamental Rights to citizen for the first time anywhere in world. Precedence as well as inspiration for Democracies across the world. | British had lost not only their territories and market for their factory goods especially the monopoly of Tea etc. they also lost their source of raw materials like cotton in America. So they shifted their focus towards east. It led to Pitts India act in 1784, by which British govt. brought the East India Company's rule in India under the control of itself. This Act provided for the appointment of a Board of Control, and provided for a joint government of British India by both the Company and the Crown with the government holding the ultimate authority. It was done in the wake of fear of losing monopolies and market of India and to prevent Indian people to revolt on the lines on America. The governor general post was established in British India to control the administration under the crown rule directly. The new administration expended their military strength and focused on the expansion of the territory by any means. Lord Wellesley who played role in controlling the American Revolution to some extent was transferred to India to use his experience and not to repeat the mistakes which have had been done earlier. Thus by American war of independence, Great Britain crown lost one empire but took strong measures to hold tight the British Indian empire. |
What were the factors that worked in the drafting of the American Constitution? Do you agree with Beard’s view of the constitution being an Economic Document? [2005, 60 Marks]
“How far is it correct to say that every feature of the American Constitution was ultimately of English Origin? [2010, 20 Marks]
Explain the main features of the US Federal Constitution. [2016]
American Constitution:
Factors that worked in the drafting | Every feature of American Constitution was ultimately of English Origin | Just an Economic Document /Interpretation of the Constitution of the United States' (1913) by Beard |
Suspicion of American people toward the misuse of excessive power by state. Traditional socio-cultural and political ideal of American people - Liberty was the most loved aspect- Provisions of Federal Polity, Dual Citizenship and emphasis on Fundamental Rights etc are reflection of same. Dissent between small and large states – The large states via the VIRGINIA Plan demanded apportionment on the basis of population while small states via the NEW JERSEY Plan demanded equal representation. The Connecticut compromise formulated by Roger Sherman combined both the plans to dissolve the stalemate. Three-Fifths Compromise over Slavery issue – with many northern states abolishing slavery the southern states became insecure. This was resolved by courting 3/5 of the slaves for representation in the Congress. Also, slave import was permitted. Note: Slaves could not vote and white leaders in slave states would thus have the benefit of increased representation in the House.
| Although the A.C. was born due to the conflict with Britain, the open-mindedness of colonists and admiration for few of the British Constitutional provisions encouraged adoption of these provisions. MAGNA CARTA (1215) of Britain – established a “Rule of Law” which in turn fortified America’s inclination towards a written document – Constitution. Bill of Rights of England (1689) – it inspired the Bill of Rights in A.C. making rights of every citizen clear. English Thinkers – John Lock, Thomas Paine – John Lock’s critique of Church gave birth to principle of Secularism in A.C. Declaration signed by Jefferson was a modified version of Locke’s basic rights of life, liberty and property. The principle of sovereignty was adopted from John Locke’s “two treatises of government”. Early Form of Government – A.C. was largely inspired by the British Constitutional and philosophical traditions. | A.C. had been framed by a bunch of rich people to protect their economic interest. Likes of Thomas Jefferson and Benjamin Franklin came from eco. Powerful families. A2 Beard most of eco. Less powerful delegates were not allowed to vote in American Congress due to one factor or the other. In the process of ratification of A.C. only about 25% of qualified American Voters were allowed to participate. Initially there was no adult suffrage even for whites. Voting was based on property qualifications. A2 Beard not only process of drafting A.C. but also its provisions proved that it is primarily an ECONOMIC DOCUMENT. It made Fundamental Rights to Property more important than government. The state intervention in economic matters was kept at lowest. The A.C. provided for Capitalist system and emphasised on LAISSEZ-FAIRE doctrine. The refusal of delegates to abolish SLAVERY [non-free man] also indicate that the economic interest of rich were given far more importance than the HUMAN RIGHTS. |
The feeling of hostility toward Britain and British Monarchy system also played a role since Americans had to fight a long drawn out war against British imperialism. The hate towards monarchy had boosted Americans to the path of Republicanism. | However, the American’s avoided British practices which they condemned. Objection to Monarchy and Landed Aristocracy – which only promoted corruption. They wanted to empower the people and hence established a democratic republic. They sensed hardening Parliamentary Sovereignty and were against it. They adopted Presidential form of government different from British form of government. They adopted Federal polity with dual citizenship rather than the unitary one of Britain. | More than an economic document: by Robert Brown (1956) and Forest Macdonald (1958). A2 them the A.C. is comprehensive and holistic document touching all sphere of human life. Economic clauses were justified - taxation and borrowing powers - for sound economy - basis for true unification of the state into a nation. A.C. provided for non-economic rights – Rule of law, Freedom of Religion, Right to Privacy, Secular System, etc. These socio-cultural and political provisions of A.C. have defined the American way of life and have led to foundation of modern state system in America. |
“At the news of the Declaration of Independence crowds gathered to cheer, fire guns and cannon and ring church bells in Philadelphia. Boston and other places, but there were many people in America who did not rejoice.” Comment. [1988, 20 Marks]
The most dramatic example was when William Franklin, son of Benjamin Franklin remained loyal to crown throughout the year.
Those who welcomed the Declaration of Independence: | Those who Did not: |
The interest of majority of American were being hurt by continuation of British Rule. It was this discontent that had taken form of revolution. The American mercantile class suffered due to British restriction of American trade. The American shipping class was in want of liberty which was denied to it by British. The American intellectual class – Franklin, Thomas Pain, James Otis, Patrick Henry who had imbibed the liberal and progressive idea of Enlightenment. The American middle class whose politico-economic rise was being blocked by the British Imperialism. Farmers rejoiced as they could expand westwards taking more lands. And other section of American society who loved liberty. | Slave owners and Landlords – griped by the fear that virus of liberty could infect the institution of slavery. Their socio-economic life was dependent on practise of slavery. The first generation migrants to America had great respect for institution of monarchy [emotionally and familial attachment to Britain] apprehensive that conflict and in future it would be difficult to maintain cordial relations with Britain. The people of FRANCE, SPAIN and PORTUGAL origin in America were apprehensive that in a democracy based on majority vote their right and interest would be seriously harmed. Slaves having no liberty did not participate. Some blacks supported crown especially in Virginia where royal Governor actively recruited the blacks in return for freedom from slavery. American aborigines were apprehensive of independent American state. The Colonial government had tried to restrain growth of White migration into lands west of Appalachian. The Anglican Church and priests protested as the new nation would be dominated by Protestants. Recent immigrants who had not been fully Americanized were also inclined to support the King, such as recent Scottish settlers. Settled cautious people who feared social instability. |
American Civil War (1861-1865):
[>620,000 soldiers died]
Abolitionism is a movement to end slavery, whether formal or informal. In Western Europe and the Americas, abolitionism is a historical movement to end the African and Indian slave trade and set slaves free.
Examine the issues involved in the American Civil War. Was it a contest between two separate nations? [1991, 60 Marks]
| North America States | South American States |
Socio-Economic Differences | High Literacy Levels Predominance of Liberal and Progressive Ideas Deeply influenced by ideals of A.R. Slavery = inhuman, crime Slave holders regarded low Blacks constitute just 1% of population | Literacy levels quite low Predominance of traditional outlook. A.R. ideals yet to gain ground. Slavery = social prestige Slaves held determined status Almost 1/3 of families owned slaves. |
Economic Factors | Modern Machine based industries Labour could be hired | Plantation - agriculture economy Manual labour - depended on slaves. |
Political Factors | Republican party (popular here) = Abolition of Slavery. | Democratic Party = Continuation of Slavery. |
Role of Presidential Election (1860) | Victory of Abraham Lincoln (republican) terrified States of South Fearing Abolition (Slavery) 7 Southern States declared secession from American Union ]Confederate States of America. A Lincoln (1st) peaceful talks -> failed -> hostilities broke out in 1861. |
Role of American Revolution (1776) | "All men are born equal" applied to whites Use of non-freemen in Constitution Constituent Assembly refused to abolish slavery [ -5 N.A. States abolished however +Abolitionist Movement of 1793] |
Issue of expansion Of American Union into West | Missouri Compromise (1820) - new states to be slave and free state alternatively. |
Developments of 1850s Radicalization between N & S | Fugitive law (1850) - allowed slave owner to take his slave back - not followed effectively in North. Anti-slavery novels, popular in North - painted slavery as ethical-moral evil. Dread Scott (1857) case: US SC declared 'slaves incapable as citizens'. |
Statements by A Lincoln:
"Another Dread Scott verdict will have serious consequences on America"
“If I could save the Union without freeing-any slave, I would do it; and if I could save it by freeing all the slaves, I would do it; and if I could save it by freeing some and leaving others alone, I would also do that.” - He made every peaceful effort to unity of America.
"America cannot continue as half free and half slave nation".
“A house divided against itself cannot stand, I believe this government cannot endure permanently, half slave and half free” Explain Abraham Lincoln’s perspective. [2016]
“If I could save the Union without freeing-any slave, I would do it; and if I could save it by freeing all the slaves, I would do it; and if I could save it by freeing some and leaving others alone, I would also do that.”. Comment. [1986, 20 Marks]
“Six hundred thousand men had died. The union was preserved, the slaves freed. A nation ‘conceived in liberty and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal’ had survived its most terrible ordeal.” [2013, 30 Marks]
Hundreds of thousands of Northerners and Southerners sprang to volunteer, as parades and banquets across the country stirred patriotic fervour and pressured young men to enlist. Almost everyone expected a short war—one brief campaign or even a single, all-out battle. Volunteers soon found that their visions of glory did not match the reality of life in camp, where they spent most of their time. The most significant factor in camp life was disease, which killed far more men than battle did.
Most Northerners went to war not to attack slavery but to preserve the Union, which had come to symbolize individual liberty, self-government, and law and order.
On January 1, 1863, Lincoln signed the Emancipation Proclamation, and the Civil War became a war to end slavery as well as to save the Union. Many Northerners opposed this radical move, but the dragging on of the war convinced more and more people of the need for it. Moreover, the distinguished service of almost 180 thousand black troops—most of them former slaves, and all facing segregation, inferior pay, and other forms of discrimination—convinced many whites of the utility of arming African Americans
American Civil War transformed America -
Wiped out differences between N & S
Forced to raise large powerful army - later it helped to become major military power.
13th CAA 1865 - slavery abolished
14th CAA 1868 - legal protection to black
15th CAA 1871 - Voting rights to black [Socially cohesive America]
American Union declared in-dissolvable.
Massive reconstruction activities - Rail lines, Road networks; Industries established in South States; Mechanization of Plantation Agriculture.
(iii) French revolution and aftermath, 1789-1815
“To some extent, the American War of Independence inspired the French Revolution.” Comment. [1999, 20 Marks]
Present a critical and comparative account of ideas, principles and objectives that inspired and sustained the American revolution of 1776 and the French Revolution of 1789.
AR and FR were the earliest modern revolution in history. What began with process of independence of 13 American colonies continued in France and other countries thereafter. AR is rightly termed as mother of all revolution and FR was the child in many ways.
“If monarchical misrule ignited the French revolution, lofty ideas both inspired and sustained it.” Comment. [1997, 20 Marks] [2002, 20 Marks]
French Revolution in France. Unique? | Similar conditions in Europe |
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Critically examine the statement that the French Revolution was not caused by the French philosophers but by the conditions of national life and by the mistakes of the government. [2016]
French political writers of the eighteenth century were influenced by Locke and also by the curious contrast, which they perceived between the government of his country and their own.” [1991, 20 Marks] (Basically role of Philosopher and IR in Britain)
The French Revolution (1789) sought to remove both‚ the religious and secular props of the existing social order. Elucidate. [1996, 20m]
“The multiple contradictions that quickly undermined the new edifice, had been expressed even before the meeting of the Estate General in France. The internal conflict among Estates had manifested itself.” Critically examine. [2015, 10 Marks]
Various Factors behind F.R. -
Politico-Admin Factors | Social Factors | Economic Factors | Religious Factors | Continuous Wars and Battle |
| Privileged group - first estate (clergy), 2nd estate (nobles)
Unprivileged group - 3rd estate
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| France - 'Catholic State'. Church managed by clergymen.
| Louis XIII - 30 years' war. Louis XIV - large # of wars. Louis XV - war of Austria succession and 7 years' war. Louis XVIII - War of American Independence.
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“What mattered in 1789- and what made men revolutionary almost in spite of themselves was the whole revolutionary situation; and in producing that situation the work of the philosophers played no very important role.” Comment. [1985, 20 Marks]
“The connection between the philosophers’ ideas and the outbreak of the French Revolution (1789) is somewhat remote and indirect.” Critically evaluate. [2012, 10 Marks]
“No event as encompassing as the French Revolution occurs in an intellectual vacuum.” Comment. [2007, 20 Marks]
“The writings of the philosophers had a tremendous influence on the minds of the people and created a revolutionary awakening in their minds and formed the intellectual creed of the French Revolution.” Comment. [1983, 20 Marks] [2005, 20 Marks]
Revolution was never intended | Indirect and Remote Connection |
Philosophers did not preach revolution and were usually ready enough to lend support to any monarch who was prepared to patronize them and adopt their teachings.
| The doctrines of philosopher came to be used later on during the course of the revolution in France often to justify measures that the philosophers themselves would have opposed. For Eg: Robesque manipulated the concept of 'General Will' of Rousseau to spread 'Reign of Terror' to purge anti-revolutionaries as well as moderates. |
Most of their readers did not inspire or want to work for revolution. They were mostly themselves aristocrats, lawyers, business people and local dignitaries who were far unhappy in the existing order. Even many absolute monarchs were the follower of philosophers. For Eg: Frederick of Prussia patronized and followed Voltaire. | If they had any influence at all on the outbreak it was only to the extent that they had fostered a critical attitude towards all existing institutions including Church. They made men more ready when the need arose, to question the whole foundation of the old order. For Eg: Voltaire criticised many institutions like Church and nobility. This eroded the prestige of the institutions and helped the revolutionaries to destroy old social and political structure. |
Few philosophers did teach anarchist ideology and violent revolution, though there were very rare. | It was the whole 'revolutionary situation' produced by bad economy, Third estates grievances, etc. In producing revolutionary situations. The work of philosophers played limited and indirect role. |
“The scale, splendour and organized power of the monarchy of Louis XIV were something new in Europe.” [1993, 20 Marks]
Discuss the view that Louis XIV of France was a great king-“the grand monarch”. [1991, 60 Marks]
“Louis XIV was the first French sovereign to make of monarchy a serious profession.” Comment. [1989, 20 Marks]
During his period he brought absolute monarchy to its height, establishing a stunning court at Versailles, and fought and won many European wars. Many call the 17th century as the age of Louis XIV and during his reign France stabilized and became one of the strongest powers in Europe.
Absolutism | Art and Culture | Foreign Policy | Counter views - not a great monarch! |
In 1661, he broke with tradition and astonished his court that he would rule without a Chief Minister. He epitomized the ideal of kingship. He chose sun as his emblem. He concentrated much power of the state and began saying, "I am the state". He had a highly codified system of etiquette to assert his supremacy. | Appreciated art, literature, music, theatre and sports. He surrounded himself with some of the greatest artistic and intellectual figures of his time. Palace of Versailles - stunning structure built by him. French culture became the most appealing and his name has been associated with greatness and glory. He disempowered historically rebellious nobles by luring them to his court and habituating them to the lavish lifestyle. | In 1667 he launched war of Devolution - revealing his aggressive approach. France dominated the European Continent during his period. French colonial presence increased during his period. His Finance minister, Colbert implemented reforms that sharply reduced deficit and fostered growth of industry; His War minister Louvois expanded and reorganized the French Army. | Long conflict with several European nations and in colonies and extravagance had plunged France into massive debt. This weakened France and many consider him to be responsible for the economic problems which was a main factor in French Revolution. He was a devout Catholic and in 1685 he revoked the Edict of Nantes, issued by his grandfather Henry IV in 1598 which had granted freedom of worship and other rights to French Protestants. Louis ordered the destruction of Protestant Churches, the closure of Protestant schools and the expulsion of Protestant clergy. Many protestants fled to England, Switzerland, Germany and American Colonies! France was denied of its labor force and talent.
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How did Napoleon Bonaparte heal the wounds of France inflicted by the Revolution and correct the errors perpetrated by its leaders? [2000, 20 Marks]
How did Napoleon Bonaparte fuse the old France with the new? [2009, 30 Marks]
How did Napoleon fuse the French of the ancient regime with the France of the post-revolutionary era? [2012, 30 Marks]
“Napoleon was the child of the Revolution, but in many ways he reversed the aims and principles of the movement from which he sprang.” Comment. [1986, 20 Marks] [1992, 60 Marks] [2004, 20 Marks]
Napoleonic rule saw comprehensive reforms. These reforms preserved several ideas of the post-Revolutionary France but at the same time they also continued elements of ancient regime, i.e. pre-Revolutionary France. Napoleon showed himself at once the heir of Revolution as well as product of the reaction against it.
Principles of Liberty, Equality and Fraternity | Governance | Catholic Church | Changes to Education | Changes in Justice System | Modernisation of France |
He adopted Equality and fraternity in social and fiscal matters. He showed no partiality and no favourites. He threw careers open to talent. A soldier could rise swiftly to highest rank. | F.R. abolished single ruler ship and a National Assembly was elected by voters (all men). Under Napoleon more changes were introduced. There were two National Assemblies and all men could vote. | In 1802 Napoleon made agreement with Pope (CONCORDAT) in which the Pope agreed that Church would not get its land back. [F.R. had sold Church land and any religion was permitted]. | Science and Maths (rationality) became more important subjects in secondary schools. The importance of obedience and military values was stressed. | Code Napoleon in 1804 contained civil code, criminal code, commercial code - Secular Code of Law. It preserved equality in inheritance, individual liberty of F.R. | He established modern institutions like Bank of France, Stock Exchange. He destroyed old aristocracy. |
He like King Louis, and unlike F.R. allowed neither liberty of Speech nor Press. No public gathering w/o permission. Principle of election subordinated that of selection. A secret police formed 1810 could arrest people without trial. Reign of terror - innocent killed. Ideal of Fraternity - but French enemy of each other | Napoleon became Emperor of France and could not be removed from power. After 1840, there were no elections. Powers of National Convention curtailed. All were appointed directly by him. | Catholic was accepted as the religion of Majority. Bishops were to be chosen by Napoleon and agreed by the Pope. Napoleon said: "The People must have religion, and religion must be in the hands of government." | Primary Education stayed almost as it had been before 1789. Napoleon regressively considered that public education does not suit women and marriage is their whole estimation. | Same time, it respected old tradition of family discipline, private ownership of property as envisaged in Roman law. The System of election of Judges introduced in 1791 was abolished. Napoleon appointed them. | Same time, impulse was given to useful and splendid public works. Attempt at restoration of Colonial Empire lost by Louis XV. |
Napoleon was symbol of French Nationalism [Principle of Nationality]
| Defeated the first European Coalition. He tried to maintain the glory of France [The F.R. had accepted the principle of nationality.] | But he showed himself anti-national in several occasions: Example in Germany and Spain where he expanded his Family Rule. |
He extended ideals of F.R. to pan-Europe | Reforms in Italy and Germany; Guild System wiped out. | He suppressed nationalist aspirations of Italy and Germany. |
“The Declaration of Rights was the death-warrant of the system of privilege, and so of the ancient regime … Yet in the history of ideas it belonged rather to the past than to the future.” Examine. [2014, 20 Marks]
Napoleonic Empire was not an interruption but an extension of revolution. Do you agree?
With the outbreak of FR, the history of Europe merges into history of one nation, one man and one event.
To what extent Napoleon continued ideas of revolution. With his emergence at the helm of piercing France the history of Europe got merged into history of one man, one nation, one event. The event was French Rev.
FR a greatest phenomenon emerged in France, transformed entire Eu ideas - how these ideas were antithesis to the old regime in Europe. Political system, Social, Economic, Ideas of LEF - threatened all regimes. As a result of that entire Eu got divided into two camps. Supporters of Rev and Opposition of Rev. Common masses everywhere with Rev. Elites and Ruling class were against Rev. This divided Eu forth for 25 years. The fights was led by Nap. From side of Rev. That is why it is known as age of Napoleon.
Napoleonic Empire was not an interruption but an extension of revolution. Do you agree?
Comment was made by Austrian Chancellor Prince Metternich in the context of reverberation created by July Rev of France in Whole Europe.
1830 July Rev started in Fr -> struck Europe.
What is the medium of infection? Ideas of Rev -> FR ideas captured imagination of common masses throughout Europe. And when Napoleon reached those borders they welcomed as liberator. Nap freed the common masses from clutches of absolutism, feudalism, aristocracy. During last year of his reign Nap turned against the masses and people supported their kings in the war of nations - Battle of Leiplitz - Nap got defeated but at same time hopes of masses got shattered. They realized that their kings did not mean to provide them Dem, Lib and Equality. As a result of that, common masses again started looking towards France. Once again for guidance and inspiration and when July revolution took place whole Europe joined.
Rev broke out in Italy, German states and Spain and Poland etc. This impact of France was visible during the Rev of 1848 as well (Denmark, Italy etc everywhere revolution was raised).
The French Revolution (1789) really achieved far less than what it intended to effect. Do you agree? [1989, 20 Marks]
What were the ideals of the French Revolution of 1789? How far is it correct to say that it overthrew mercantilism and the surviving relics of feudalism and contributed to the political supremacy of the middle class? [1979, 60 Marks]
“The French Revolution attacked privileges and not property.” Comment. [2003, 20 Marks]
FR of 1789 was based on high ideals of 'LEF'. People sacrificed their lives to attain this goal.
People of France had suffered a lot under the system of privileges and sheer misuse of power. The economic condition in France was at large very poor. Common people suffered under the burden of taxation whereas privileged section lived a life of ease and extravaganza. So people stood up against this injustice and led to revolutionary movement known as FR.
F.R. intended to achieve the following: | However, many of the aims were not achieved - |
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Though FR had high ideals to take off, but later on as the History of French progressed many of these ideals took a back seat. However whatever it achieved is significant as, even centuries later the ideals set by FR echo. For example, ideas of Liberty, Equality, fraternity was adopted by India when it got independence.
To what extent did Napoleon’s economic war with England become his undoing? [2010, 20 Marks]
“The Continental Blockade was a misconceived idea of economically defeating Great Britain.” Critically examine. [2015, 10 Marks]
“The Napoleonic Empire was doomed because of its inherent and self-defeating contradictions.” Elucidate. [2001, 20 Marks]
Continental Blockade - a misconceived idea | Defeating Consequence |
Berlin Decree (1806) - Against Laissez Faire
Why? Failure - militarily at Battle of Trafilgar => Economic warfare to subdue Br. | Initially Br faced shortage of grain.
Failure of French Industry to fill gap! |
Spanish Ulcer | Consequence |
Spain (ruled by French Bourbon dynasty) conflict between King and Son. Napoleon appoints his brother [NEPOTISM] as king (Napoleon Imperialism). Popular Reaction, localised uprisings, Guerrilla Warfare. Br. Sent best commander to assist Spanish Nationalist. Napoleon leaves in 1812. | Nationalism from Spain -> Europe => popular anti-Napoleon support. Russia, Prussia, Austria etc [4th Coalition] - Battle of Leipzig (1813) - Napoleon defeated. Not ordinary battle - WAR of NATIONS. Treaty of Tilsit was high watermark of Napoleon Career (1807). Whole of Europe including Russia under him. Success of Spanish rebels (1812) - inspired Italians & Germans to rise against Napoleon. |
Napoleon's military conquest was ephemeral | Napoleon's civil works were built of Granite |
Coz Congress of Vienna fixed French borders @1789.
Therefore, it collapsed faster than it emerged. |
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The year 1866 was a turning point in the history of Prussia, Austria, France and Europe. Explain.
In 1866, Battle of Sadowa was fought between Prussia and Austria. In this battled Prussia led by Bismarck defeated Austria decisively.
Austria enjoyed a very high prestige. Asutria was a dominant power in Germany. This sovereign control was exercised by Austria since ages but now historical relations were transformed. Austria was pushed out of Germans and Austrian empire was just limited to Austria and Hungary.
Treaty of Prague signed between Prussia and Austria was liberal. It did not demand any Austrian territory but entirely it took away Austrian prestige because as per provisions of this treaty Austria had to agree to leave Germany. It was end of Austrian dominance. Phase of Prussian dominance commenced. 28 states of N Germany were amalgamated to create N German Arbitration headed by Prussia.
Though Austria was defeated in Battle of Sedowa but France who felt defeated. Because Fr king Napoleon was into his own calculations. He thought war would be long drawn out. France would get opportunity to intervene and once Fr would intervene Fr would conquer both. This calculation could not materialize because Austria was defeated in a span of 7 weeks. France was amazed by this quickness. Immense pressure was built up on French King for passivity. Nations were emerging on Fr border and Fr was doing nothing.
Venetia came to Italy (1866). These developments pushed Fr again into war against Prussia but at the Battle of Sedan King was captured. Fr empire collapsed. Also, the end of Fr dominance in Eu. With this Eu lost mistress. Hereafter Germany dominated Eu. Politics or dictated the rules of engagement. Berlin emerged as capital of Eu; Paris and London largely disappeared from map. Every important international conference was held in Berlin.
“At the end of the battle of Sedan (1870)‚ Europe lost a mistress and gained a master.” Comment. [1995, 20 Marks]
Battle of Sedan and Consequence | Lost a Mistress | Gained a Master |
Whole French Army surrendered to Prussia and French emperor Napoleon became a prisoner. | Glory of France of Napoleonic era passed into oblivion. | Germany replaced France in Europe's balance of power to become the most powerful nation of Continent. |
France was totally isolated.
After disaster of Sedan -
Completed the Unification of Germany | War came to an end with Treaty of Frankfurt (1871) -
| In 1870 German states combined possessed larger population than France but disunity had concealed this. It had more rail lines, GNP, Iron-Steel pdtn than France. Coal pdtn ~2.5x France; I.R. created more large scale firms. Manpower for warlike purpose were highly effective. People possessed a far higher level of primary and secondary education, unrivalled university and scientific establishment and chemical labs and R&D without an equal in the European continent. Once German states were unified, it became master of Europe. |
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