AH - Indus Valley Civilization

Origin, date, extent, characteristics, Decline, survival and significance, Art and architecture.

A new phase of imperial state formation in south Asia - Herman Kulke and Rothermund.

In archaeology and industry still more in dress and religion, Mohenjo-Daro revealed features that have always been characteristic of historic India" - V Gordon Childe. 

“The Indus civilization did not have an abrupt appearance.” Discuss the statement. How does the Indus civilization stand, in view of its geographical expansion and chronology, in relations to the Vedic civilization? [1990, 60m]

Theory of Foreign Origin (Mesopotamia / Sumeria)	Theory of Aryan Origin	Theory of Gradual Evolution/ Indigenous
Foreign HC Urban but HC well laid out. Pictographic (Mesopotamia 900 deciphered) but HC script - 396 non-deciphered Seals Mesopotamia - cylindrical (clay) HC - Quadrilateral (steatite) Controversy - little evidence for early civilization. Burnt bricks on large scale Authors - Gordon V Childe. R Mortimer Wheeler, John Marshall. Basis - similarity w/ foreign. 500 years the civilization could attain such rapid rise => Mesopotamian contact. Less Bronze; inferior quality	HC Vedic Urban Villages Mother goddess Male dominate Bulls Cow Peace loving Warlike	Mehrgarh, River Bolan, semi-arid -> migrate - Indus river, fertile alluvium => Amri and Kot Diji some urban elements (Proto Harappa Phase). Agri surplus 2800BC -> A/C, T/C i.e. secondary activities => rise of urban centres = emergence of HC. Agri surplus + T/C + A/C = Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro => Huge amount of foreign wealth came in.

Was India civilized before the advent of the Aryans? State briefly the extent and striking features of the earlier civilization, if any. [1982, 20m]

Discuss salient features of the Indus Valley Civilization. Mention important places from where relics of civilization have been recovered so far. Examine causes of its decline. [1999, 60m]

Nature and Character of HC:

Secular, Urban Utilitarian, Materialistic Multi-ethnic - Bearded Priest (Mongoloid); Bronze girl (Proto-Australoid) Centralised Proto-historic Cosmopolitan o/l (Mesopotamian coffin burial, lipstick)

Scientific and Technological - Metallurgy (Sn + Cu); Communication (carts and boats); Construction (water tight walls); Civil Engg (Public houses)

Give an appraisal of town planning of the Indus cities and evaluate the various reasons for their decline. [1979, 60m]

Analyze the elements of urban civilization in the Harappan Culture. What factors were responsible for its decline? [2002, 60m]

1. HC cities Comprised two parts - Citadel Area (fortified) and lower town.
2. At Surkatoda (GJ), Kalibangan (RJ) even lower town was fortified. At Chanudaro there was no fortification at all. At Dholavira there was a middle town.
3. Laid out in well planned manner. Roads intersecting each other at right angles. Grid pattern was followed in layout of city. Main road was about 10 metres wide, running in N-S direction.
4. Houses were built along sideways. No door or window opened on the main road.
5. Well-developed sanitation system, individual houses were having flush toilets. Drainage was interconnected and cleaned regularly.
6. Highly developed water management system. More than 700 well found. Each house with own well as well as a public well in every street.
7. Rainwater was also harvested by Harappans, advanced mechanism f. at Dholavira. Excess rainwater carried to fields for irrigation => flourishing cities even in semi-arid region of Rann of Katch.
8. Urban institution were present. Cosmopolitan, multi-ethnic.

Critically evaluate the significance of HC in IH.

Took IH back by 1000 years. 1st Urban revolution. Laid base for Indian Religion. Arch. Culture was highly developed. Flushed toilets. Sustainable development at large scale.

What is rare is significant. Gave significant boost to Ind Historians. Decline - a lesson for caring rivers? 

Harappan Sites in India:

Akhnur/Manda, near Jammu, Chenab river - northern most site of HC ; Nearby = prominent abode of Buddhism during Kushana and Gupta period. Terracotta related to both HC and Buddha's bust is found here. Manda, Jammu - Northernmost site of IVC; Right bank of Chenab river.

Dholavira, Khadirtbet in Kutch District, Gujarat - 1/5 largest Harappan sites. Coastal route existed linking Lothal to Sutkagan Dor. Unique three divisions – the citadel, the middle town and the lower town. Most striking - all buildings are built out of stone, whereas elsewhere exclusively built out of brick. Massive reservoirs - rains / store the water diverted from two nearby rivulets. Longest Signboard f. in Indus script (1 symbol appearing 4x) - large size and public nature => Indus script = full literacy.

Hisar, Haryana - Nearby locations of Rakhigarhi, Siswal suggest presence of human habitation from pre-H period. Hisar-e-Firoza. Timur invasion in 1398, set fire to fort.

Kalibangan, Rajasthan - Unique fire altars. Earliest attested plough field. Rectangular as well as cylindrical seals found.

Alamgirpur, UP - Eastern most & only HC site across Yamuna. Typical Harappan pottery f. & appeared 2b pottery workshop. Broken blade made of copper f. Noteworthy finding: textile in plain weave on a potsherd.

Bhagatrav , Bharuch district - An important port, as Lothal. Gives access to the agate-bearing mines and forested hills of the valleys of the rivers Narmada and Tapti. Flood was one of the reasons for decline/destruction of some Harappan settlements such as Bhagatrav, Lothal, Rangpur, Desalpur, Chanhu-daro etc.

Hulas, Saharanpur district, UP - Late IVC site, in fact belongs to Chalcolithic C. Most of these settlements are small, 3 excavated = Hulas, Alamgirpur, Bargaon. Handmade and wheel made pottery. Horse gram, cow pea, fruits of pipal tree.

Rakhigarhi, Hissar district, Haryana - Site of largest known city of IVC. Fire altars and apsidal structures were revealed. Ropar, Rupnagar district, Punjab - One of bigger sites of IVC whose significance continued up to Gupta time. Discovery of large number of coins (from punch marked coins of Gupta to various iron and copper objects) indicates that Ropar was centre of craft and commerce.

Desalpur, Kutch District, 25kms from Bhuj - A massive stone fortification. Apart from basic Harappa pottery, 2 script bearing seals, (1 steatite and other Cu).

Banawali / Banamali - Pre-Harappan & Harappan phase like Kalibangan. Several houses show evidence of fire altars, which indicate ritualistic purposes. Marine shells f. (also Harappa, Kalibangan), far away from sea => internal trade between the regions during early Indus period.

Surkotada, Kutch district, Gujarat - Contains horse remains dated 2000BC. Location was strategic to control eastward migration of Harappans from Sind. Presence of Mongoose were found awa in Mohenjodaro, Harappa, Rangpur indicating that these animals were kept as protection against snakes.

Loteshwar, Mahesana district, Gujarat - Ancient site occupied since hunter gatherer's time in 6th C BC. Lothal, Ahmedabad district, Gujarat - Dockyard, Persian gulf seals, Bead maker's shop. Thriving trade centre in ancient times.

Harappan Sites in Pakistan:

Chanhudaro, Sindh - South of Mohenjo-daro belonging to the post-urban Jhukar phase of IVC. Evidence of shell working; bangles and ladles were made here. Harappan seals made here (Harappa, Mohenjodaro - as bigger towns) => admin network.

Harappa, Punjab, Eastern Pakistan - On Banks of Ravi river. Chart weights, measures, Cotton, Wheel made pottery.

Ganeriwala - near the Indian border on the dry river bed of the Ghaggar-Hakra. Comparable in size with the largest sites of the Indus Valley Civilization, such as Mohenjo-Daro but it is not excavated and only identified.

Sutkahgendor - Westernmost known arch site of IVC, on Makran coast, near Iran. Citadel, Lower town + massive fortification wall. Connected trade route from Lothal and Dholavira. Dish-on-Stand, shell beads, Copper Arrow Heads.

  

Do you think the Harappan civilization had a diversity of subsistence base? [2014, 15m]

The Harappan civilisation covered an enormous area and the diversity of the subsistence base was an important sustaining factor- if one food resource failed, people could turn to others.

Diversity of the subsistence base

Agriculture - was the mainstay of the subsistence base. Given the area covered by the civilization, there were regional variations in the plants grown by the farmers. The crop remains identified include rice, wheat, barley, sesame, watermelon seeds, peas, dates, millets, horse gram, green gram, etc. In addition to these, there were also evidences of grapes, cotton and henna.

Animal husbandry - Harappan sites have yielded remains of domesticated animals such as humped and humpless cattle, buffalo, sheep, and goat. Cattle and buffaloes were the most domesticated animals. They were used for meat, milk and draught animals. Goats and sheep were used for meat, wool, and milk. Dog figurines suggest the domestication of this animal.

Hunting - Bones of wild animals have been found at the Harappan sites. These include many varieties of deer, pig, boar, sheep, goat, ass and pig. Rhinoceros bones occur only at Amri and elephant and camel bones occur only in small quantities. The animals like rhinoceros, elephant, tiger, rabbits, peacocks, pigeons, ducks, monkeys etc appear on seals, represented in figurines and paintings on pottery.

Fishing and exploitation of riverine and marine resources - Bones of tortoise and fish have also been found. The discovery of marine catfish bones at Harappa suggests that coastal communities traded in dried fish in inland cities. At coastal sites in Gujarat, molluscs provided an important protein-rich element in people’s diet.

Therefore it can be concluded that the agriculture, animal husbandry, hunting and fisheries constituted the diverse subsistence base of the Harappan civilization.

Discuss  the  water  management  and  its  conservation  planning  in  the Harappan (Indus-Saraswati) cities. [2013, 20m]

An efficient and well-planned drainage system is a notable feature of Harappan settlements. The main drains were covered by corbelled arches made of brick or stone slabs.

1. The drains for collecting rainwater were separate from the sewage chutes and pipes.
2. They made elaborate arrangements for water for drinking and bathing. The sources of water were rivers, wells, and reservoirs or cisterns.
3. The Great bath at Mohenjodaro is a unique example. The floor and walls of the tank were made water tight by finely fitted bricks laid edge to edge with gypsum mortar. A thick layer of bitumen was laid along the sides of the tank making this one of the earliest examples of waterproofing in the world.
4. In the city of Mohenjodaro, there may have been more than 700 wells. Most houses or house blocks had at least one private well. Many neighbourhoods had public wells along the main street.
5. In Allahdino (Near Karachi), the wells had very small diameter to enable the ground water to rise higher due to hydraulic pressure. It may have been used to irrigate the nearby fields.
6. Dockyard of Lothal is the most distinctive feature of the site. It is roughly trapezoidal basin, enclosed by walls of burnt bricks. The dockyard had provisions for maintaining a regular level of water by means of a sluice gate and a spill channel.
7. The city of Dholavira had an impressive and unique water harvesting and management system. Dams were built across two streams- Manhar and Mandsar to channelize their water into reservoirs. Several large, deep water cisterns and reservoirs have been found which preserved precious stores of rain water.

“The continuity of the Indus Civilization into later ages was not confined to the religious and spiritual fields alone.” Analyse the statement. [1997, 60m]

Write a short essay on:  “The Religion of the Indus Civilization.” [1996, 20m]

“The Indus Civilization had an abrupt end.” Discuss the statement and explain how the Indus Civilization could influence Indian culture in its later history. [1988, 60m]

The culture and traditions of the Indus valley Civilisation have been preserved without a breakdown to the present day and it includes all walks of life not just the religious and spiritual fields.

How continuity in the religious and spiritual fields:

• The Pashupati of the Harappans shows a remarkable resemblance to the Shiva of the later Hinduism traditions.
• Worship of Pipal tree and humped bull still prevalent in the Indian society.
• Worship of Shakambari, the Earth mother still continues in the countryside.
• Worship of male and female creative energy in the form of stone icons of lingas and yonis continues to the present day.
• Discovery of fire altars in Lothal and Kalibangan gives indication towards fire cult. Later fire came to occupy a very important position in Hindu way of worship.

How continuity in other fields:

• Pottery - Some of the forms and features of the pots used by the Harappans can be seen in traditional kitchens even today.
• House Plans - People lived in houses of different sizes, mostly consisting of rooms arranged around a central courtyard, which can be seen in Indian villages even today.
• Lost-wax method – It was used in the making of the famous ”dancing girl” of the Mohenjodaro. This technique is still used in certain parts of India.
• Cotton – Mesopotamian texts mention cotton as one of the imports from Meluhha and traces of cotton cloth were also found at Mohenjodaro. India still continues to produce and export cotton.
• The beginning of the system of binary and decimal and other measurements and weights which were used by the Harappans have continued into later India. For example- 1 rupee = 16 annas.
• Garments - Use of dhoti like lower garment which still continues in the countryside, and an upper garment consisting of a shawl or cloak worn over one shoulder and under the other was in vogue during the historical periods. For example, this style is visible in the images of Buddha also.
• Use of talisman and amulets still continues in the Indian society.
• Some of the symbols like ”Swastik”, ”Circle” etc found on the Harappan seals remains  important till this day.
• Continuance of dice games, kajal for the eyes kept in jars with sticks, ivory combs, nose rings, bangles, rosary etc continues.
• Cultivation of crops like wheat, barley, rice, etc continue even today.
• Separate bathing areas and toilets have been found in many houses of the Harappan civilization. This can be seen in the countryside till now.
• The Harappans made elaborate arrangements for water for drinking and bathing. The emphasis on providing water for bathing suggests that they were very particular about personal hygiene. This consciousness for personal hygiene can still be witnessed in the Indian society.
• The practice of building ritual bathing tanks and taking holy bath and ablution can be traced back directly to the Harappan period.

Thus, it would be appropriate to say that the continuity of the Indus Civilization into later ages covers all the walks of life not just the religious and spiritual fields. Also, that some elements of IVC are prevalent even today indicates towards the trend of cultural continuity.

Evaluate  the  significance  of  seals  and  sealings  in  the  reconstruction  of  socio-economic and religious life of the Harappan people. [2012, 30m]

Seal making was an important Harappan craft. Most of the seals are square or rectangular. A few cylindrical and round seals have also been found. Most of the seals are made of steatite, but there are a few silver, faience, and calcite ones as well. Most of the seals have a short inscription.

Significance in the reconstruction of religious life of the Harappan people:

• The sealings with the narrative scenes may have had religious or ritualistic function.
• A seal showing a nude women, head downwards, with her legs apart and a plant issuing from her vagina is often intrepreted as a prototype of Shakambari, the Earth Mother.
• Harappans also worshipped a male god represented on a steatite seal discovered at Mohenjodaro, usually referred to as the Pashupati seal (A male figure with a buffalo horn head-dress seated on a dais - flanked by four animals- an elephant, rhinoceros, water buffalo, and a tiger - striking resemblance with Shiva of later Hindu mythology).
• The Harappan seals and sealings depict a number of trees, plants, and animals, some of which may have cultic significance.

Significance in the reconstruction of socio-economic life of the Harappan people:

• A Kalibangan cylinder seal shows a woman flanked by two men who hold her with one hand and raise swords over her head with the other, this may represent the prevalence of human sacrifice.
• Most of the writings appear on the seals and sealings. The writings on the seals was probably the language of the ruling elite. Most of the inscriptions are very short, with an average of five signs.
• Seals provide information about the dresses, ornaments, hair-styles of people.
• Seals also exhibit skill of artists and sculptors.
• Some of the seals may bear names, titles, and symbols of the ruling elites and could throw important light on the Harappan rulers, if the writing could be read.
• They may also have been worn as amulets or used as identification markers by the well-to-do people like landowners, merchants, priests, artisans and rulers.
• According to Ratnagar, the large number of unicorn seals at major cities suggest that the unicorn was the symbol of the Harappan ruling elite.
• Kenoyer, on the other hand, argues that the “unicorn clan” probably represented the aristocracy or merchants who had an important executive role in the government. It is in fact the less frequent motifs such as the bull, elephant, rhinoceros, and tiger that may have been symbols of the most powerful rulers at the apex of the Harappan power structure. 

Discuss the trade, cultural contacts and the extents of the Indus Civilization within and outside India and describe in detail any one of the Indus sites within India. [1980, 60m]

Write a short essay on: “External trade of the Harappans.” [1991, 20m]

• Both river boats and seafaring boats are depicted on the seals. They may have been used for both internal and external trade.
• A number of Harappan seals have been found in Central Asia, Persian Gulf, Mesopotamian sites which help in reconstruction of the external trade networks of the Harappans-
• A silver seal, a rectangular harappan seal bearing the Harappan script at the south Turkmenistan.
• The sites in Iran have yielded seals.
• A round seal with a short-horned bull motif and Harappan writing found in the Persian Gulf.
• Seals with Harappan motifs and writings on the island of Bahrain.
• Certain motifs such as the bull on the Mesopotamian seals have been cited as reflecting Harappan influence. Cylinder seals with Harappan-motifs suggest interaction between merchants of these two areas.
• Some of the writings were impressed onto small moist clay tablets known as sealings, probably by merchants to authenticate their bales of merchandise. The evidence of textile impressions on some sealings support this interpretation.
• Some of the seals may have been tokens used in the buying and selling of goods.

Note:

Trade though used very loosely by archaeologists cannot be understood as we currently understand it.

Giving of good for another one from giver may be called exchange as there may be some commercial advantage but not trade as such which needs developed markets. Sending of these specially made objects may not imply trade but may signify peace or status. - S Ratnagar.

Write a brief essay on: “The burial customs in the Indus Civilization.” [1993, 20m]

• Harappan cemeteries have been located at sites such as Harappa, Kalibangan, Lothal, Rakhigarhi, Surkotada etc.
• The most common method of burial was to place the body of the deceased in an extended position, with the head towards the north, in a simple pit or brick chamber.
• Grave goods include food, pottery, tools, and ornaments but they were never too many or lavish. Clearly, the Harappans preferred to use wealth in life rather than bury it with their dead.
• Normally, no coffin, structurally or otherwise was used but at Harappa, archaeologists found a woman’s body in a wooden coffin lined with reed mats.
• At Kalibangan, symbolic burials with grave goods but no skeletons were found.
• Fractional burials (where the body was exposed to the elements and the bones then gathered and buried) were found at Mohenjodaro and Harappa.
• Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa also gave evidence of urn burials which point towards the existence of practice of cremation.
• Multiple burials of men and women were discovered at Lothal. A unique funerary rite involving the simultaneous burial of two persons in the same grave-pit was observed at Lothal.
• At Ropar cemetery, the body was laid in the grave with head to the north-west normally but in one case, the orientation was north-south.
• Interestingly Harappan burials show little evidence of social hierarchies, unlike Mesopotamian or Egyptian where some interments may indicate considerable wealth.

Is it right to explain the practices and customs of history by looking on objects from current times perspectives? Discuss the problem of doing so in case of religion.

“On circumstantial evidence Indra stands convicted.” Explain, and discuss briefly different views about a sudden end of the Indus Valley civilization. How would you explain the presence of those elements in Indian culture and civilization which are found to have existed in the Indus Valley period? [1986, 60m]

The decline of Harappan civilization was caused by ecological degradation rather than external invasion. Discuss. [2015, 15m]

How do you account for the decline of the major cities of the Indus Valley Civilization? [1984, 20m]

Aryan invasion theory– It was put forward by Ramprasad Chanda and Mortimer Wheeler. They put forward the idea that the civilization was destroyed by Aryan invaders. Rigveda mentions Indira as Purandar (destroyer of forts), Vritrahara (slayer of demon Vrita) who used to bock flow of water in rivers. A place named 'Harupriya' is mentioned.

• However, the archaeological evidences show the absence of any such invasion and hence this theory, though most popular, is not accepted. 37 skeletons f. at Mohenjo-Daro belong to different stratigraphic levels => didn't die at same time, also cause of death different. Also Vedic Aryans came around 1500BC and HC had set into decline much before that. Date and pace of decline different at different site.

Shereen Ratnagar has argued that the decline in the lapis lazuli trade with Mesopotamia was a factor in the decline of the Harappan civilization. 

• But this trade was not much important for the Harappans and consequently, this could not have been a factor responsible for the decline.

Natural disasters like Floods, Tectonic Movements, Shifting of the Indus as the cause of decline

• Historians like R.Sahni and others argued that the repeated episodes of Indus floods were responsible for the decline of the cities. They argued that the floods were result of the tectonic movements. The tectonic movements led to the creation of a gigantic dam, turning the whole area Mohenjodaro into a huge lake. However, this theory of flooding induced by tectonic movements is not convincing.
• Historian H.T.Lambrick’s hypothesis is that the Indus changed its course, moving eastwards, starving Mohenjodaro and its inhabitants of water. However, Lambrick himself describes it as purely circumstantial evidence.
• Ecological Imbalance Theory by Fairservis or over exploitation of resources – Making estimates of the population, land, food, and fodder requirements on the basis of modern data, Fairservis suggests that the civilization declined because the growing population of people and cattle could not be supported from the resources within the Harappan culture zone. Of all the theories discussed so far, Fairservis’s theory seems to be the most plausible.

Monsoon Link Theory of 2012. It is presented by Ronojoy Adhikari and others. This theory holds the climate change responsible for the decline of the Harappan civilization.

• According to this theory, around 4000 BCE there existed extreme monsoon climate which was not favourable for the rise of civilization but with the weakening of the monsoon, the climate became favourable for the rise of the mighty harappan civilization and with the further weakening of the monsoon, the climate became again unfavourable which led to the decline of the civilization. The example of this further weakening is the disappearance of the Saraswati River which was rainfed not Glacier fed.
• This theory is based on the latest archaeological evidence and research and tries to explain the decline of the Harappan civilization on the basis of the ecological degradation.

Role of conservatism in the decline of IVC - didn't evolve for 500 years, failure to learn superior Bronze tech even after being in contact with Mesopotamians, failure to shift to safe locations even after repeated floods.

Archaeological evidences does not tell about the reason behind the gradual decline of the civilization with any certainty. But they do indicate very clearly that Harappan cities underwent gradual process of de-urbanisation.

Agricultural technologies: 

While the prevalence of agriculture is indicated by finds of grain, it is more difficult to reconstruct actual agricultural practices. Were seeds broadcast (scattered) on ploughed lands?

Representations on seals and terracotta sculpture indicate that the bull was known, and archaeologists extrapolate from this that oxen were used for ploughing. Moreover, terracotta models of the plough have been found at sites in Cholistan and at Banawali (Haryana). Archaeologists have also found evidence of a ploughed field at Kalibangan (Rajasthan), associated with Early Harappan levels. The field had two sets of furrows at right angles to each other, suggesting that two different crops were grown together. Archaeologists have also tried to identify the tools used for harvesting. Did the Harappans use stone blades set in wooden handles or did they use metal tools?

Most Harappan sites are located in semi-arid lands, where irrigation was probably required for agriculture. Traces of canals have been found at the Harappan site of Shortughai in Afghanistan, but not in Punjab or Sind. It is possible that ancient canals silted up long ago. It is also likely that water drawn from wells was used for irrigation. Besides, water reservoirs found in Dholavira (Gujarat) may have been used to store water for agriculture.

Examine why the majority of the known Harappan settlements are located in the semi-arid areas where irrigation was probably required for agriculture.

The peak of urbanization in Harappan civilization as seen through meticulous town planning and presence of specialized trade could have been possible only in the presence of well-developed agricultural systems and food surplus.

Major factors which could have contributed to these developments are –

WATER SOURCES AND EFFECTIVE MANAGEMENT

Proximity to major rivers – It is a matter of fact that despite IVC being a semiarid region at present, there are theories that it was not so dry at that time. Perennial water supply from Indus and its tributaries. Harappa was on bank of Ravi River and Mohenjo-Daro was on bank of Indus. Ghaggar-Hakra river system, now dry Saraswati and Luni rivers also greatly contributed to the agricultural and other needs of Harappans.

Aquifers, natural springs and subsoil water – Presence of Wells in dwellings for fulfilling domestic needs.

Irrigation – Water storing structures and channels found in and around Harappan settlements shows their means of water. Dams and embankments found in Dholvira and traces of canals have been found at Shortughai (Afghanistan). Also evidences of lift irrigation systems have been found.

Effective Management – Community water structures like water bath in Mohenjo-Daro provide necessary insights into importance attached to water management.

TRADE

Harappan people had trade relations with distant lands like Oman (Magan), Bahrain (Dilmun) and Iraq (Mesopotomia). Trade was predominantly through ports like Lothal which come under semi-arid category.

ANIMAL HERDING

The evidence of cattle, sheep, buffalo, goat and pig shows the alternative sources of food which mitigated the extreme dependence of Harappan people on agriculture.

Such favourable factors contributed Harappans to survive and flourish. It might have had sufficient water during those times and the consequent flooding and change of course have transformed the region into semi-arid one. This coupled with overexploitation of resources should have contributed to the receding of Harappan might.

Recently researchers from the University of Cambridge in the UK and Banaras Hindu University in Uttar Pradesh have examined how Indus populations in north-west India interacted with their environment. Discuss their findings.

Working between 2007 and 2014 in NW India, researchers studied the dynamics of adaptation and resilience in face of a diverse and varied environmental context;

1. Climate Change factor – During Holocene, the IVC was situated closer to Kotla Dahar (monsoon filled closed basin). But then monsoon cycle – which was pivotal to livelihood – halted for two centuries which led to decrease in water level in Kotla Dahar basin and lead to de-urbanisation.
2. Improved water management practice – As society progressed, there was improvement in conservation practices (covering of drains below streets) and rather than being forced to diversify subsistence practices, in response to climate change, a broad uniformity was observed as opposed to earlier beliefs of divergence in subsistence practices.
3. Settlement pattern – IVC developed in a region where there was overlap in summer and winter rainfall systems and adequate water were available and also played a role in evolution of city’s drainage systems.
4. Cropping pattern – Use of millet, rice and tropical pulses in both pre-urban and urban phases, suggested that local people had adapted themselves to vagaries of climate.
5. The various theories that suggest decline of IVC revolve around Climatic Factors mainly. This suggest that people of IVC had to face enormous climatic conditions:
6. Floods – the silt clay that covers the collapsed houses at Mohenjo-Daro suggest repeated floods as a cause of extinction of Harappan Culture
7. Earthquakes – Prone area – repeated seismographic vibrations must have led to erosion that brought down buildings
8. Change in Course of Indus – Water scarcity must have led to exodus of Harappan people to other places. But this does not explain decline at Lothal, Kalibangan, Ropar because the Mohenjo-Daro did not occur in this regions.

http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Indus-era-8000-years-old-not-5500-ended-because-of-weaker-monsoon/articleshow/52485332.cms

“The people shifted their crop patterns from large-grained cereals like wheat and barley during the early part of intensified monsoon to drought-resistant species like rice in the latter part. As the yield diminished, the organised large storage system of the Mature Harappan period gave way to more individual household-based crop processing and storage systems that acted as a catalyst for the de-urbanisation of the civilization rather than an abrupt collapse, says scientists from IIT-Kharagpur and Archaeological Survey of India (ASI).”

Discuss the pattern of trade during the Indus Valley civilization. How far did it affect the nature of contemporary settlements in the Indian sub-continent? [1994, 60m]

<try to answer the question above on self and put your answers in the comment section for me to review>