Syllabus:
Liberation from Colonial Rule (i) Latin America - Bolivar (iii) Australia (iii) Africa - Apartheid to Democracy [Liberation from Colonial Rule] (i) Factors constraining development (iv) South-East Asia - Vietnam, Philippines, Indonesia - Decolonization
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Did the End of Colonialism bring good experience to all countries as India? No.
Ghana – 1957, Nkrumah S/o goldsmith and a teacher himself – independent struggle; but unlike Nehru, he got himself elected for life; soon after in 1966 overthrown by the military.
The next big push to democracy came after 1980s when many countries like Poland got free from communist control after disintegration of USSR (1991). But in Pakistan, General Musaraf brought army rule 1999. In Nepal new king dismissed government in 2005. Myanmar freed in 1948 came under military in 1962.
Discuss the nature of American overseas expansion in Asia and explain the consequences. [2014, 10 Marks]
Explain how American imperialism in Philippines differed with European imperialism in Indonesia and Indo-China. [2011, 30 Marks]
American Imperialism in Philippines | Unique Features |
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Trace the significant role played by Ho Chi Minh in Vietnam’s struggle for freedom. [2016]
Why did Vietnam go through thirty years of war after the Second World War? [2009, 30 Marks]
“….. nascent nationalism in Indo-China developed within both an Asian and a European context with but scanty reference in either case to traditionalist considerations.” [1982, 20 Marks]
Indo-China - VIETNAM (FR, JP, AM) | Vietnam War 1946-73 |
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What was the culture system in the Dutch East Indies (Indonesia) during the 19th century? Why was it dismantled? [1981, 60 Marks]
Critically examine the culture system in the Dutch East Indies (Indonesia) during the nineteenth century. Why was it dismantled? [1985, 60 Marks]
Critically examine the Dutch colonial policy in Indonesia. [2010, 30 Marks]
“Holland was engaged in a systematic exploitation of Indonesia in the nineteenth century.” Elucidate. [1979, 60 Marks]
Indonesia | 1830 - Cultivation / Culture System established | Independence |
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Identify the main strands in the Nationalist Movement in Indonesia between the two World Wars. How did Japanese occupation of land influence the course of the Movement? [1984, 60 Marks]
Give a brief account of the struggle against ‘Apartheid’ in South Africa. [2006, 60 Marks]
“There must be an end to white monopoly on political power, and a fundamental restructuring of our political and economic systems to ensure that the inequalities of apartheid are addressed and our society thoroughly democratized.” Discuss. [2013, 25 Marks]
Apartheid in SA (was captured by Br in 1795) | Internal Reaction | External Reaction | Road to abandonment of Apartheid |
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“The Capitalism which gave the European empires their apparent solidarity and permanence also hastened their downfall.” Comment. [2009, 20 Marks]
The European countries flourished, the standard of living of their people raised and the region became economically well off and powerful due to capitalism. The greed for resources was raised to an enormous extent that it led to competition among the European nations ultimately leading to two world wars. This resulted in the exhaustion of resources in the home countries as well as the colonies. Poverty, deaths due to wars and famines created anguish and revolts in colonies. The already war affected European countries unable to manage the colonies had to ultimately grant freedom to many of them. They were so war ravaged that International Bank for Reconstruction and Development was established to aid rebuilding and reconstruction of Europe.
Everything has a limit and so is capitalism. Their own greed of capitalism brought an end to the solidarity of the European nations.
“The decolonization led to the break-up of empires.” Comment. [2001, 20 Marks]
Write a critical note on the process of decolonization accelerated by the second World War. [1988, 60 Marks]
Factors responsible for Decolonisation.
Spread of Enlightenment | Commenced with American War of Independence 1776. |
Role of WW | Atlantic Charter, 1914, Prez Roosevelt - right of self-determination of people in colonies. [Nations should not expand by occupying others' terr.] Black's exposure to progressive ideas. Loss of men and material of colonial powers - B, F, G. |
Role of Cold War | Colonial powers = Capitalist => Encouraged Communism. Soviet govt. supported colonies independence. American govt. persuaded colonial power to grant independence. |
Role of UNO | Stood by peoples aspiration - supported cause of independence. |
Role of NAM | Gave moral strength to people. Since 1961, emergence of NAM, decolonization accelerated in Africa. By 1990s most of African territories gained independence. |
How did the Japanese occupation of South-East Asian countries during the Second World War give a boost to nationalize in the regions? Explain with examples.[1990, 60 Marks]
“Decolonization ‘has finished. It definitely belongs to the past. Yet somehow it has refused to become history.” Critically examine. [2013, 10 Marks]
The formal beginning of decolonisation was the War of American Independence (1776-83) when 13 colonies resisted the mercantilist exploitative policies of Britain.
However, the vast areas of Asia, Africa, and middle-east remained under the control of imperialistic countries till the end of WW-II. After the end of war, several factors worked together to initiate the process of decolonisation.
The decline in the economic and military might of Europe, American pressure over Europeans as it wanted to have trade, nationalistic movements in colonies along with the support of USSR to these colonies were few among the several factors which caused the fall of colonial empires.
Thus, India became independent in 1947, Burma and SL in 1948. By the end of 1954 the French left Indo-China. Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia all became free. USA too left Philippines in 1946. By the end of 1980s almost all the African nations also became independent as the UNO and newly independent Asian Nations supported their freedom movements.
At the end of this long process of decolonisation it was expected that now there will be no exploitation of one nation by another. The newly independent nations were hoping to enjoy freedom and democracy. However, their hopes were soon belied.
The developed countries of the world soon invented new methods to politically and economically control the newly independent colonies of the world. This new phenomenon was called Neo-colonialism. USA was using neo-Imperialistic policies since 1820s over the Latin American countries of the world. USA installed puppet regimes, used dollar diplomacy, big stick policy and good neighbourhood policy to control the economy and foreign policies of these country.
The same kind of methods were now used to exploit and control the newly independent Afro-Asian nations. AFTER the SUEZ war when Mohammad Mosaddegh nationalised oil resources of Iraq, he was assassinated by CIA, and a USA friendly regime was established. In the same way when Iranian PM tried to assert more control over the Anglo-Iranian oil refinery he was deposed and the authority of Shah of Iran who was friendly to USA was established.
After the Iranian Revolution of 1979, Saddam Hussein was prodded by the West to attack on Iran and when Saddam Hussein attacked Kuwait the West attacked him as its oil interests were being threatened. Many of these newly independent countries became pawns in Cold-War rivalry as they joined military blocks such as SEATO, CENTO etc.
The neo-Colonialism percolated itself in the 21st Century also. The present crisis in Syria, Yemen and Afghanistan are the outcomes of neo-Colonialism. China is also using its economic might to expand its control in Africa and by constructing projects such as China-Pakistan Economic Corridor.
Thus, it can be rightly said that the decolonisation has finished but somehow it has refused to become history.
“Asian Nationalism is just a product of Western impact on the Asian intelligentsia in the last decades of the nineteenth century.” Comment. [1994, 20 Marks]
Colonialism of most of Asia and Africa was partly possible due to the backward nature of society present in these countries. When European nations arrived with the flushed ideas of enlightenment to the Asian Shores, the people here did not have any nationalist feeling for their country.
Situation in the 19th Century Asia was -
People owing their loyalties to next kin or to the tribes of their family. Eg: Chinese peasant society, caste system in India.
Regional Nationalism was present and there were numerous regional kingdoms fighting with each other. Eg: declining Manchu dynasty in China, Mughal rule in India, leading to rise of provincial kingdom.
In such situation European powers brought the enlightenment ideas to Asia, such as: Uniform Administration, Equality, Secularism, Rationalism, etc. The establishment of rule of law encouraged people to look beyond their society for the betterment of all.
All these conditions resulted in rise of Asian Intelligentsia, such as:
Most of the modern leaders of INC were western educated and belonged to urban section who could absorb new ideas.
Dr Sun Yat Sen of China started his ideas for the development of China on 3 basis viz. Nationalism, Democracy and Land Reforms.
Ho Chi Minh of Vietnam was influenced by the communist ideologies and established left government in his country.
Similarly, Sukarno of Indonesia established his country on basis of enlightenment ideas.
These leaders across Asia inspired the masses and aroused the feelings of nationalism among them. Their views were spread with the means of communication provided by the colonial powers itself such as news, railways, pamphlets, speeches, demonstrations, etc.
Thus, the Western impact for the spread of Asian Nationalism from the leaders to the masses were immense, which also paved way for the demand of self-rule among these countries.
Countries colonised by Europe’s imperial powers had vastly divergent economic fates after the end of colonial rule. Some prospered into extraordinarily rich economies, while others made very little progress. Examine the causes of this divergent economic fates of colonies.
Quality of institutions – The quality of institutions developed and put in place by the colonial masters was one of the major factors. In places where the institutions were long lasting, like in Spain, they propelled after colonial growth of the economy. At other places, where institution were only of make shift type and meant for quick plunder, like in Nigeria, these institutions itself became a burden on the overall system.
Ratio of European population to the Total population – The colonies where the European population was significant as compared to indigenous population, those colonies were favoured by the inflow of technology and modern ideas which helped them shape up their ” after-colonial ” economy. The best example is of America where Colonial masters drove away the indigenous American Indian population.
Different attitude – Where British invested a lot in the infrastructure like Railway, educational institute leading to better growth in later years. On other hand, Belgium barely invested anything in Congo leaving it bare.
Divide and Rule – African division on the straight lines partitioned several countries into numerable warring tribes leading to civil war in several African countries.
Some countries like Zimbabwe witnessed rapid growth in initial years because of increased White settlement and their control over key land and industrial resources. But this growth was not widely shared among mass population and later control by native population put their growth rate on back-foot.
International cooperation – British strategy of cooperating with its colonies through commonwealth further guided the development and helped colonies to secure a status in the international forums leading to better developments.
Fight back by the countries like Egypt to control critical asset of Suez Canal led to enormous increase in their revenue thus better spending on healthcare and education.
Nature of leadership- Military leadership proved to be a bane. Benevolent dictatorship worked well in Malaysia. Populist leadership worked well to mitigate colonial wounds but was unsustainable in the long term.
Human resource- Some nations developed to manufacturing hubs due to cheap labour. Nations where people had a more progressive mindset became technologically advanced. Countries like India and Pakistan where people were not very open to change faced hurdles in keeping up with the pace of other countries.
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