Syllabus:
(Delhi Sultanate) Consolidation: The rule of Iltutmish and Balban; Mongol Menace; The Khalji Revolution
Alauddin Khalji: Conquests and territorial expansion, agrarian and economic measures
Muhammad Tughluq: Major projects, agrarian measures, bureaucracy; Firuz Tughluq: Agrarian measures, achievements in civil engineering and public works, Theocracy; Theory of Kingship; Decline of the Sultanate; Foreign contacts and Ibn Battuta’s account; Economy: Agricultural production, Land Revenue, Judicial Administration
Women, religious classes, caste and slavery under the Sultanate; Persian literature, literature in the regional languages of North India, Literature in the languages of South India; Sultanate architecture and new structural forms, Painting, evolution of a composite culture
Composition of rural society, ruling classes, town dwellers, Rise of urban economy and non-agricultural production, Maritime trade, Industries and Labour, trade and commerce (13/14)
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Bring out the main features of the administration system under Delhi Sultanate during Turko-Afghan Period. [2006, 60m]
The state set up by the Turks towards the end of 12th Century in Northern India gradually developed into a powerful and highly centralised state which had a well-defined administrative apparatus. Sultan played the most important role in keeping together the whole administrative machinery. But apart from him there were various other administrative units and departments. Some of the important administrative features of DS are as follows:
Sultan - Sultan's office was the most important in the Sultanate. The supreme political, military and even legal authority vested in him. He was responsible for administration and was also C-i-C of the army. He was also responsible for law and order also acted as the highest court of appeal. A direct appeal could also be made to him. The idea of primogeniture was not fully developed. Military strength was the main factor in succession to the throne.
DIWAN-i-WIZARAT - It was the finance department whose head was Wazir. Wazir or PM was the most important person in the royal court. He was also advisor to the Sultan. All Fiscal concerns of the state were Wazir's responsibility. DIWAN-I-WIZARAT kept check on land revenue collection and also maintained a record of income and expenditure incurred by the state. Salaries of all royal servants were recorded by this department. Charitable donations like Waqfs, Inams etc were also managed by this department. This department also supervised the payment given to army.
DIWAN-I-ARZ - It was the army which helped Sultan to conquer new areas, protect his kingdom and maintain law and order within the empire. DIWAN-I-ARZ looked after the military organisation of the empire. It was headed by ARIZ-i-MUMMALIK. The Ariz maintained royal contingents, recruited soldiers, ensured the discipline and fitness of the army and examined the horses and branded them with royal insignia. During war, Ariz arranged the military provisions, provided constant supplies, provided transportation and was the custodian of the booty collected. Alauddin Khalji introduced the system of dagh (branding of horses) and hulyah (description of soldiers look) and the system of cash payments to soldiers.
Provincial Administration - The Sultanate was divided into various provinces. Each province was placed under a governor called the Wali or Muqti. Provinces were further partitioned into SHIQS which were placed under SHIQDARS. Barani mentions Shiqdars and Fauzdars. Shiqdars, apart from being responsible for the collection of Land Revenue and maintenance of law and order, also provided military assistance and supervised the functioning of smaller administrative units like the Parganas.
Village Administration - A Pargana comprised of number of villages. The important functionaries of the village included the - MUQADDAM and KHUT, who acted like Village headmen. Patwari was the village accountant. There were local rulers also like rai, rana, rawat, raja etc who were the superior rural class. Village officials along with the help of local rulers collected the village revenue.
Espionage - there was a strong espionage system in the Delhi Sultanate. Intelligence Officers or Barids had direct access to Sultan. They were appointed directly by the Sultan and they needed to report all local developments to Sultan regularly. These officers were Sultan's 'eyes and ears' and acted as an important check against powerful nobles.
Decimal System of Army Organisation - The decimal system in army organisation was used by the Ghaznavids and Mongols. The Sultans of Delhi also followed the similar system. Barani has stated that a SARKHAIL commanded 10 chosen horsemen, a SIPAH-SALAR 10 sarkhails, an AMIL 10 sipah-salar, a MALIK 10 amirs, a KHAN 10 Maliks and a King at least 10 khans under his command. There were also amiran-i-sada (centurian) and amiran-i-hazara (commander of 1000).
Revenue Administration - The primary source of income for the state was land revenue. The state held large tracts of land (KHALISA) which were tilled by farmers and from where the revenue came to the central treasury. Land Revenue reached its highest of one-half of the produce during Alauddin's reign, who had adopted the policy of actual measurement of land called 'HUKM-I-MISAHAT'. He also removed all intermediaries.
The revenue was broadly subdivided into Fay and ZAKAT. Fay was further subdivided into KHAM, JIZIYA and KHARAJ.
Zakat comprised of taxes imposed on flocks, herds, gold, silver, commercial capital and agricultural produce, basically on total property one had.
Kham was 1/5th of booty acquired in war or in a mine or a treasure trove. This had to be duly handed over to the state.
Jizya - It was imposed on non-Muslims, in return for which they received protection of life and property and exemption from military service.
Kharaj - It was the tax on land.
Apart from these there were some other taxes as well, such as Charai - tax on milch cattle, Gharai - property or house tax. It seems that tax was collected in cash though it was also sometimes collected in kind for specific purposes.
Iqta System - According to Nizam-ul-Mulk Tusi, the Iqta was a revenue assignment that the Muqti held at the pleasure of the Sultan. The Muqti was entitled to collect land tax and other taxes. He used this tax to maintain troops for the Sultan. The Surplus was sent to the central treasury. Iqtas were transferable and often Muqtis were transferred so that they could not become a threat for the Sultan. Muqtis were required to retain the revenue amount equivalent to their personal pay as well as the salaries of troops employed by them. Alauddin Khalji cancelled various iqtas and paid his officers fixed salary from his treasury. But Firoz Shah Tughlaq again revived the system of Iqtas.
These were the main features of the administrative system of DS during Turko-Afghan period.
Trace the Iqta system under different Sultans.
Arabic practice, adopted by Turks, intro in India.
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| Contributions of Iqta: Strength foundation 300 years of DS. Admin mech. to use in newly conquered territories Territorial expansion Help economy Maintain large army Keep ambitious nobles away as iqtadars - far off lands Supress revolts, rebellions. |
Iqta system - Politico-Admin, Military, Economic machinery.
*Fawazil=revenue deposited to centre.
Discuss in brief the land-revenue system and judicial administration of the Delhi Sultanate.
Land Revenue = most important source of state income. | Judicial System: |
LRS = traditional hereditary agrarian structure + state officers
Assessment system: Batai (crop sharing)
Revenue collection mechanism: (village smallest unit of admin)
| FST - Amputation of Limbs; Use of Ordeals - harsh punishment |
Examine the elements of continuity and change in the nature of Delhi Sultanate.
Some evolved with passage of time | Some continued without much change |
Initial phase - under C Asian Ghurid empire i.e. no independent existence. Qutb-ud-din Aibak and Iltutmish - independent political entity = DS Balban- strong centralized state. AUK and MBT - pan-India empire. FST - decentralization; Iqta = hereditary. Lodi = confederacy => sultan 1 among equals; no collection of Fawazil. | Despotic authority of Sultan Centralized state system - large body of officers - Portfolio. Iqta system. Police State - collect revenue and maintain law and order (no welfare responsibility) Military state - no difference between civil and military officers (support of military and no masses). Cultural State - patronized art and culture - monuments. Imperialist outlook - from Delhi-PJ to Pan India |
Write a short essay on: “The ‘Corps of Forty’ and its relations with the Sultans.” [2004, 20m] [2008, 20M]
Analyse the social composition and the role of nobility under the successors of Iltutmish. How did it affect the contemporary politics? [2012, 30m]
Turkani Chahalgani | Or CORPS of FORTY or Chalisa |
'40' was symbolic | Only 16 members |
Purpose | Look after admin function of state. |
Nature after Iltutmish death | Highly ambitious, undisciplined, kingmaker |
Supported weak contenders | Rukunuddin, then woman (Razia ruled better than men), later conspired to remove her |
Balban | A member; designation: naib; later captured power from Nasiruddin (mendicant) |
Balban's blood and iron policy | Knew the ambitions of Chalisha - destroyed the group (poisoned, removed, terrified) |
Assess the contribution of Iltutmish for the expansion and consolidation of the Delhi Sultanate. [2011, 20m]
Iltutmish is considered as the real founder of the Delhi Sultanate. He made Delhi his seat of governance in preference to Lahore and proved to be a very capable ruler.
When Iltutmish occupied the throne of Delhi, there was every danger of the disintegration of the Sultanate. However, it goes to his credit that he not only reasserted his authority but also safeguarded the sultanate from external danger and internal rebellions. Gradually, he regained all the territory which had one time formed part of Muhammad Ghuri's empire. He also added some regions towards the South. By bringing the Rajputs under submission he made them realise that the Sultanate was a power to be reckoned with.
Steps taken for the expansion and Consolidation:
Politico-admin system | Defeated external claimers - Re-conquest of Multan and Sind (1227-28) | Rajputana reconquered - Suppression of the Rajputs |
Initially none present. Secured the Frontiers. Iqta System. Turkan-i-Chahalgani. Hashm-i- Qalb - small body of central standing army. Protection from Mongol 1221 - Diplomatic Neutrality [Chengez chasing Mahalgani - Prince of Khwarazim]. Investiture from Caliph 1229 - legitimise his position. | Tajuddin Yaldoj of Gur, Nasiruddin Qabacha of Sind claimed Delhi. Iltutmish launched an offensive (after death of Chengez Khan) - captured Multan, Sind. Re-conquest of Bihar and Bengal (1226) Iltutmish eldest son (Nasir Uddin Mahmud) defeated Ghiasuddin in Lakhnauti (c. Bengal) - app. 2 separate governors (for effective control). Conquest of Punjab - prolonged fight with Khokars - annexed Lahore, Sialkot, Jalandhar and Nandana, garrisoned the forts and assigned the Khokar villages as Jagirs to Turks/Afghan soldiers. | Following Qutub-ud-din Aibak's death, Rajputana declare independence - vigorous to overthrow authority of the Turks. Iltutmish Success - Defeat of Ranthambore (1226), Jalore, Mandsaur, Ajmer (1230). Mandu, capital of the Paramaras was recovered. Rebellious province reconquered - Badaun, Benares, Kanauj. In 1231, Gwalior was besieged (gallant fight put up by Parihara ruler Malayavarmadeva for one year). No success - Kalinjar (1233) (Ruler, Trilokvarma left fort though). Bhilsa and Ujjain in 1234-1235. |
Analyze the steps taken by Razia Sultan to strengthen her position as an independent ruler despite various obstacles. [2013, 10m]
Initial difficulties for Razia | Razia strengthens her position | Able, love of justice and capacity for hard work | Her firmness her Demise | Tabaqat-i-Nasiri. |
Wazir, P.G., keen to replace Rukunuddin by a person of their choice (control and influence). Orthodox Muslims resent - woman sultan. # of sons of Iltutmish still alive (support of some nobles and people of Delhi). Confusion advantage => Rajputs launch offensive against the Sultanate. | Justification - her father had nominated her as successor in preference to his sons. Use of diplomacy - Given the situation, Razia avoided a military encounter Hostile P.G. of Badaun, Hansi, Lahore and Multan. A secrete alliance with Salari and Kabir Khan + spread rumours of a # of rebels joining her. Rebel chiefs (out of distrust) withdrew from the capital quietly. Her prestige enhanced - P.G. submitted to her authority. Distribution of important offices to supporters - Kabir Khan = governorship of Lahore. Tughril Khan (vice-royalty for not joining the rebels). Appointed non-Turkish nobles, Indian Muslims as Qazis. An Abyssinian (Jamal-ud-din Yaqut) as amir-a-kur (master of horses). A2 Minhaj-i-Siraj, "From Debal to Lakhnauti all the maliks and amirs manifested their obedience and submitted". | Rajputs - Ranthambore was besieged and captured. An independent and absolute monarchy. Bold and Courageous - gave up Purdah, held open court, listened to the grievances of her subjects and exercised general control over the admin dep. In battles, Razia rode at the head of her armies. | Direct exercise of power -cause of dissatisfaction of the Turkish Nobles (Abyssinian in nobility resented) Resentment led to rebel - made captive by Tabarhind governor Altunia. In spite of her marrying with Altunia, she could not win over nobles and finally lost her life. | A political history by Minhar Siraj. Written a few years before and after the Khalji period. Divided into twenty-three Tabaqat or collections of biographical notes and historical events arranged dynasty-wise. |
*P.G. = Provincial Governors.
Give an estimate of Ghiasuddin Balban. [1996, 60m]
What were the problems Balban faced? How far did he succeed in solving them? Was he a trendsetter in his theory of kingship? [1985, 60m]
Initial Internal as well as External Challenges - Solved |
| Estimation - courage + ability + wisdom |
Authority of Sultan deteriorated - ToK, Nobility disbanded |
| From Amir -i- Akhur (incharge of stables) to Naib |
Law and order degenerated - ToK |
| Kind hearted father - son Bughra Khan; Trendsetter; |
Robbers highway, merchants threatened - destroyed hold (Mewat region) |
| Patron of art and culture - start of career of Amir Khusrau 1st true usage of arch - Balban's tomb. |
Required to justify his assession - ToK |
| Successful Military commander, However, highly centralised. |
Governor of Bengal declared independence - Blood and Iron Policy |
| Blood and Iron Policy - violence and strength; Suppress ruthlessly Tughril Khan. |
Mongol threat - forts and diplomacy (under efficient generals command) (forts at Bhatinda, Sunam, Samana) |
| Defensive steps - nothing to stop permanent Mongol invasion. |
What measures did Balban adopt to combat the Mongol menace? [2015, 10m]
How did the Mongol invasions affect the Delhi Sultanate and the north-western frontier policy of the Delhi Sultans? [2012, 30m]
The North-western frontier of India with its low mountains and famous passes such as Khyber and Bolan could not create a formidable barrier like its northern part where HinduKush and Himalayan mountain ranges have banned any assault. The Mongols repeatedly invaded parts of Pakistan and crossed Indus to invade Delhi.
Keeping the danger, the Sultanate rulers in its early days of Iltutmish avoided a full scale war while keeping its frontier secure. The polite refusal of Iltutmish to deny political asylum to heir of Khawazam Shah was one such diplomatic step.
Similarly, Balban adopted both military and diplomatic measures. He sent an envoy to Mongol leader Halaku and received his embassy with grand reception. At the same time he adopted a forward policy and built large number of forts in the way of Mongol attack.
Alauddin Khalji, however, was the sultan who took the challenge seriously, and built a large standing army against Mongols with his strict market and economic reforms. With his military tactics, Mongol invasions to Delhi were not only defeated but great onslaught were made on Mongols.
The policies of north-west were hence of conciliation, diplomatic and forward policy as a whole.
Mongol Invasions: initially up to Frontiers, later on up to Delhi.
Policy of Various Sultans: | Consequences of Mongol Invasions: |
1st - 1221 - Chengez Khan - Iltutmish diplomatically 1241 - Bahram Shah - defeated - frontiers plundered Balban - 2 attacks - already elaborate arrangement - repulsed 1292 - Jalal-ud-din Khilji - repulsed. 12x AUK - up to Delhi - raised large army, new forts, best commander - repulsed; Captured Mongol invaders - converted - New Mussalmans Last 1398 - Nasir-ud-din Mahmud - fled when Timur came and plundered Delhi. | Constant fear affected functioning of Admin Financial burden on state External trade not grew up to potential. Danger on Land route. Cut Sultans from Islamic world
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Critically examine the views of Balban, Ala-ud-din Khalji and the Tughluq on the nature of Kingship under the Delhi Sultanate. [1982, 60m]
Comment on “Balban’s theory of kingship.” [1995, 20m]
Discuss Balban’s concept of kingship. How was it modified by Alauddin Khalji? [2002, 60m]
Evaluating the theory of kingship of the Sultanate, discuss the deviations seen in the reigns of different Sultans. [2014, 20m]
ToK | Sultan =Zillalulah (Shadow of god) | King as a despot (centralisation) | Nobility and Royal descent | Dignity of the Sultan (V.I.) | Justice (to everyone) |
Balban
Sultanate = Niyabat-i-Khudai (Gift of God) | Divine in character [ABSOLUTISM] Answerable only to God [Despotic Authority], not intermediaries (Ulemas). Those who revolt against him are sinner before God (Iranian ToK). | His word was the law. "Kingship is the embodiment of despotism”. | Low and ignoble families cannot. [RACIALISM] Nobles are in no way equal to sultan. Descendent of the Iranian hero, Afraisyab (to gain legitimacy) | Nobles stand in serried ranks, strict order. [Paibos and Sijda = kiss feet and bow kneel] No laughing out aloud (himself or anyone else). Gave up drinking in his assemblies. Richly decorated Court. People from faraway places to see Balban’s public processions. [PARAPHERNELIA - Nauraj, new year] | A2 Barani, his justice won the favour of his subjects and made them zealous supporters of his throne. Showing no favour to his brethren or children, or to his associates or attendants. [IMPARTIAL] |
Alauddin ToK | Separation of Religion from politics. | No questioning Sultan | Himself low origin. Principle of Strength. |
| Oppressed higher ups but relief to common people. |
MBT ToK |
| " | Nobility Subjugated |
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Write a short essay on: “Alauddin Khilji was a typical despot” [1999, 20m]
Write a short essay on: “The Khalji Revolution” [2006, 20m]
Low origin - establishment of such rule (Revolution) | ADMIN - 4 Ordinances | REVENUE - Max Mobilized; 1st in Drab - close to DS. | MILITARY |
No differentiation among Muslims - race, culture ban. Principle of strength - anyone could be Sultan. Separation of Religion from politics. Ulema's limited to religious activities. Imperialism - dominant. First Turkish ruler to cross the Vindhyas.
Allaudin Khalji - Sikandar-i-Sani title (like Alexander the Great).
| Excess Wealth, free grant (Inam, Milk, Iqrar) taken away from people. Spies system - eyes of sultan. Prohibition - people start distilling at home. Intermarriage among Nobles prohibited. Idea to control revolt, rebel. | MASAHAT system (Amount of land revenue - survey and m/s) Amount of LR = 50% of produce; Intermediaries also pay (earlier exempted). New taxes - Ghari (house tax); charai (grazing tax) Rate of Khums (state share of war booty)- 4/5 (earlier 1/5). Senior officials - check papers of Patwari (Very strict, punishment for erring officials). | Large central army - Sultan command Payment in cash only (earlier land grant) Takka/annum i.e. salary fixed. Soldiers of Iqtadar - regularly inspected. Dag & Huliya System (branding or horse; facial and bodily description of soldier). |
Bring out the essential features of the administration of Ala-ud-din Khalji. [1979, 60m]
Examine the significance of Alauddin Khalji’s administrative reforms. Was he really successful in implementing these measures? [1993, 60m]
Alauddin took great interest in administrative affairs, he set various guidelines and executed his plans with utmost severity. He concentrated his attention on the functional part of the government and made it highly efficient by introducing discipline. Some of the important administrative reforms introduced by Alauddin were:
Change in Turkish Aristocracy - He realised the shortcomings of Turkish aristocracy and therefore he did away with it at the top level and reduced their strength at the middle level administrative hierarchy. He threw open the Khalji bureaucracy to the commoners, including the Hindus, the Hindu converts to Islam and other unprivileged Muslims. As the Khalji's did not belong to the Turkish ruling elite of the 'slave' sultans of DS, they identified themselves with the masses. In this way he also tried to reduce the danger which a strong Turkish aristocracy might have posed to the Sultan.
Position of Sultan was made more powerful - Alauddin emerged as an autocrat. He had won the crown by force and his ministers, counsellors and legal advisers didn't dare to go against him. He made the position of Sultan much stronger than before. He suppressed many regional revolts during his reign which further strengthened his authority.
Espionage - efficient system to keep himself informed. He received regular reports from three sources - the officers in charge, the news reporters (barids) and the spies (Munhins). The Barids were known to the public while the Munhis were undetectable and communicated directly with Sultan. Through these Sultan kept the nobles and officials under constant check.
Alcohol and Gambling - He introduced prohibition on wine in the capital and adjoining areas. Gambling was also forbidden. The wine shows were closed down and the wine merchants and the gamblers were turned out of the city. The use of wine in feasts and social gatherings was declared an offence. It is said that Sultan himself gave up drinking. However, a limited use of wine to the people, in the privacy of their homes, was allowed. According to Alauddin, by prohibiting wine and gambling he could instil a sense of discipline in the officials' which would improve the whole administration machinery.
Regulating the social interactions of nobles - He took stringent measures to bring the nobility under his effective control. He placed numerous curbs on their social mobility and inter-relationships. The nobles were not permitted to visit each other's houses or give feasts or hold meetings. They were forbidden to enter into matrimonial alliances without the consent of Sultan.
Revenue administration - AK intro important changes in the revenue administration.
He introduced the principle of land measurement for determining the LR. Biswa was declared as the standard unit of land measurement. The government demand was often fixed at half of the produce.
He removed the intermediaries like Khuts, Muqaddams and Chowdharis who often exploited the peasants by extracting more and more revenue from them.
Ak enforced strict discipline among revenue personnel, collectors, clerks and other officers employed in revenue matters. Those who took bribes and acted dishonestly were dismissed immediately.
These administrative reforms undertaken by AK created a well-disciplined and efficient administrative apparatus. Apart from these AK also intro his innovative market regulations or economic reforms too. These administrative reforms reflect that AK was an able administrator. Through the reforms he was able to keep the nobility in check and thus led to political stability of the empire. Similarly, through his revenue administration he checked the practice of fixing land revenue arbitrarily and he successfully weeded out the intermediaries from the whole revenue extracting machinery. Therefore, the administrative reforms introduced by AK were very significant.
Critically examine the price control measures of Alauddin Khilji. What was the main objective behind them and how for was he able to put them into effecter? [1987, 60m]
Write a short essay on: “The significance of Alauddin Khilji economic regulations for his imperialism.” [1989, 20m]
What, in your opinion, was the significance of the extensive military expeditions undertaken during the time of Alauddin Khalji? Do you think his reign is considered significant in terms of such expeditions alone? [1991, 60m]
Discuss the implications of Khilji imperialism with reference to administration and economic regulations on the State and peopIe of India. [1997, 60m]
Assess the impact of the market reforms of Alauddin Khilji on contemporary economy and society. [2001, 60m]
What were the aims of Alauddin Khalji behind his market regulations, and how far were they achieved? [1981, 60m]
Analyse the ordinances mentioned by Barani which Alauddin Khalji promulgated for market control. [2014, 10m]
Critically examine the economic regulations of Ala-ud-din Khalji. [1983, 60m]
Examine critically the agrarian and economic reforms of Alauddin Khalji. How did it strengthen the Sultanate? [2011, 20m]
Market Reforms / Regulations | Aims / Reasons behind market regulations: | Impact of Reforms on Economy and Society | ||
A2B, Alauddin set up three markets at Delhi,
Fixed the prices of all commodities from grain to cloths, slaves, cattle etc. A controller of market (shahna-i-mandi), intelligence officers (barids) and secret spies (munhiyan) were appointed. Sultan received reports from three separate sources (above). Detailed regulations (zawabit); Ihtikar (Regrating) prohibited. Territories -
| Successful military exploration <=> excess flow of gold and silver Increase in # soldiers <=> money circulation in market increase.
Barani says a military measure (after Mongol siege of Delhi, to recruit a large army, but treasury would have soon exhausted, to pay salaries). CRITICISM: several commodities for which prices had been fixed were of little or no use for soldiers. Only for military needs, such extensive economic measures were not needed. Amir Khusrau - intended to ensure supply of important commodities for the benefit of common people and to combat famine. Barani gives a second reason - part of Alauddin’s general policy to impoverish the Hindus so that they would cease to harbour thoughts of rebellion. CRITICISM: Reflects orthodox religious biasness against non-Muslims.
A2MH Irfan Habib - keep cost of military campaign low.
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Khalji's market control measures did not survive its enforcer. Reasons:
Possibly - lack of sufficient competent administration.
According to Irfan Habib -
Low Price => low revenue.
With no Mongol threat - no need for large army and expenditure.
Therefore, don't concentrate army around Delhi <=> interest of state = dismantle price control.
Do you agree with the view that Muhammad Tughluq was ‘transcendent failure’? Why did he fail to achieve the ideals he had set for himself? [1984, 60m]
Muhammad Bin Tughlaq’s contradictory qualities were beyond the grasp knowledge and common sense. Evaluate the significance of his administrative measures and policies in the light of this statement. [1992, 60m]
MBT - most powerful Delhi Sultan | Contradictory Qualities of MBT: | Significance of MBT: |
Monarchical despotism Nobility subjugated Secular Administration Heterogeneous nobility (Turkish, Indian Muslim, Non-Muslims) Meritocracy Imperialistic - Direct control over Peninsula Reforms or Experiments | A2B: mixture of opposites
A2MH: Idealist; Pragmatic. Attributes of ruler. | Capital transfer, Sandhar loans, New Agri dept - long term beneficial Encouraged superior crops - Wheat, Rice, Sugarcane. Patron of learning - knew Persian, Arabic; knowledge of Mathematics, Astronomy. City of Jahapana - built by him. Foreign scholars in his court. However good a military commander - over idealist; failed in execution of Plan |
*A2B = According to Barani and Battuta
*A2MH = According to Modern Historians
*MBT = Mohammed bin Tughluq
Write a short essay on: “Experiments of Muhammad Tughluq”. [2003, 20m]
Write a short essay on: “The Token Currency System introduced by Muhammad Tughluq.” [2004, 20m]
Write a short essay on: “Muhammad Tughluq as an agrarian innovator.” [2009, 20m]
Transfer of Capital (1327-28) | Token Currency Experiment (1329) | Expeditions (1332-33-34)) | Taxation in Doab (1334): |
Why? A2B - arbitrary decision of Sultan - punish Delhi residents + alternate capital. A2MH - Policy of Direct Rule - from Daulatabad (Peninsular) + Mongol Threat. Extent: A2B - all residents asked to move. A2MH - minting of coins going on in Delhi - not completely abandoned; only elites moved Impact: A2B - destructive - half people die (he, however, mentions - elaborate arrangement by Sultan - trees, roads, wells). Long Term: Socio-economic integration of NI and SI. Muslim family - background for Bahmani Kingdom. Return? A2B - realisation of mistake. A2MH: Plague of 1335; independence of Madurai; Emergence of Vijayanagara Empire. | Bronze/ Cu - face value = Au, Ag; Motive: increase his resources for grand scheme of conquest and administrative reform. A2B: ambition to conquer the world => a huge army / economic compulsion A2MH: innovative mind of MBT.. Idea already in China and Persia. However, shortage of Au, Ag could not have been a major reason for the step because, when the experiment failed, the sultan called in the token coins, and paid gold and silver in exchange for them. Easy to Duplicate; Forge Coins => Traders refuse to accept. Barani says that the ‘house of every Hindu became a mint’ => Inflation, Financial health of state affected. Significance: if successful, would have led to an expansion of India’s T&C because there was a worldwide shortage of silver at the time. | Khurasan (1332-33) Raise Soldiers, pay advance - 1 year. Not undertaken - army disbanded. Reason: Changed geo-political condition. A2B - MBT moved by praise of Khurasan nobles. Advance not taken back => financial strength of MBT and welfare outlook. Charachil Expedition (1333-34) Small Hindu kingdom in Himalaya Successful as king accepted suzerainty of MBT. However, army lost in land slide while returning. | A2B - LR increased by 20x. A2MH: 50% of produce Theory: not high; Practice: unbearable Burden + Famine + Collection - Cultivators abandon, village deserted. Sultan on knowledge: remission of revenue; Sandhar Loans (seeds and equipment purchase). Took many years for normalcy to return in Doab. Model Agri Farm (1337-38) New dept of Agri - 'Diwan-i-Amir kohi' - extension of cultivation. 1000 sq km, 70 lakh takka, 3 years invested But, land selected barren + period small (3 years) Money given used to meet routine expenditure (famine effect). It was not successful. |
Write a short essay on: “Indo-Islamic architecture during the Khalji and Tughluq period.” [1992, 20m]
Trace the technological and stylistic development in the architecture of the Sultanate period. [2014, 15m]
The Khalji period saw a lot of building activity.
There was great building activity in the Tughlaq period which marked the climax of the Delhi sultanat as well as the beginning of its decline.
Khalji Period | Tughluq Period |
In the evolution of Indo-Islamic architecture, Khalji period occupies a key position as it exhibits a distinct influence of the Selijuq architecture (Turkish tribe ruling over Central Asia and Asia Minor in 11th-13th century) as also certain salient features of composition which were adopted in the succeeding styles. Alauddin built his capital at Siri, a few kilometres away from the site around the Qutb. Alauddin planned a tower twice the height of the Qutb Minar but did not live to complete it (Alai Minar). However, he added an entrance door to the Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque. This door, which is called the Alai Darwaza. It was the first building in which the dome was built not on the principle of overlapping courses of masonary, gradually decreasing in size as they rose upwards, but on the basis of radiating voussoirs. The horse-shoe arch used for the first time in the building, is pleasing in appearance. Mosque architecture was also developed during this period as shown by the Jamaat Khana mosque at the mausoleum of the sufi saint, Nizamuddin Auliya. | Ghiyasuddin and Muhammad Tughlaq built the huge palace-fortress complex called Tughlaqabad. By blocking the passage of the Jamuna, a huge artificial lake was created around it. The tomb of Ghiyasuddin marks a new trend in architecture. To have a good skyline, the building was put up on a high platform. Its beauty was heightened by a marble dome. The deliberate attempt to combine the principles of the arch, and the lintel and beam. In the buildings of Firuz Tughlaq in the Hauz Khas, which was a pleasure resort and had a huge lake around it, alternate stories have arches and the lintel and beam. The same is to be found in some buildings of Firuz Shah’s new fort, now called the Kotla. The Tughlaqs did not generally use the costly red sandstone in their buildings but the cheaper and more easily available greystone. The element of reduced ornament confined mostly to inscribed borders executed in plaster or stucco. A devise used in the tomb of Firuz Tughlaq is a stone-railing in front which was Hindu design. Many mosques were also built during this period, such as the Kalan mosque, in Nizamuddin the Khirki mosque in South Delhi (By Firuz Tughlaq). They were of undressed stone and lime plaster, and hence not very elegant. For the first time in the tomb of Firuz’s wazir, Khan-i-Jahan Telangani, was the octagonal tomb (later copied and perfected by Mughals). Many features were added to it: a verandah was built around it with long, sloping chajja or eaves as a protection against sun and rain. At each corner of the roof, chhatris or kiosks were built. Both these features were of Gujarati or Rajasthani origin. |
Form an estimate of the personality of Firoz Shah Tughlaq with special reference to his religious policy and public works. [2000, 60m]
“Firuz Tughluq has been overshadowed by Muhammad Tughluq.” In the light of this statement evaluate the significance of the policies and actions of Firuz Tughluq. [1990, 60m]
Crisis faced by DS - E.o. MBT, Rise of FST. | Taxation Reform | Welfare Works | Religious Works | ||||||||||||||||||||
Independence - Peninsular, Sind, Bengal. Dis-satisfied - Ulemas, Nobles, Military (booty less, no rest), People (Capital transfer), Peasants (taxation project)
| 21 Miscellaneous cess (Abwabs) abolished. Rate of Khums - 1/5 Revenue Survey - fixed perpetuity
| Dept. of Pension - sufferers under MBT. Dept. of Charity - Marriage grant to poor Muslims Free hospitals, kitchens Dept. of Slaves - to look after Benevolent (despot) - yet final decision remained with Sultan.
| Abolished non Shariat practices. Promoted Islam. Converts granted Jagir. #Hindu temples abolished. Imposed Jaziya on Brahmanas Appeased Ulemas - consulted on every matter. Ideal Muslim King (as/ Tarikh-i-Firoz Shahi by Shams-i-Siraj)
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Patronage to learning (Court) - FST | Significance: | Tawarikhs |
Ziya-ud-din Barani, Shams-i-Siraj Hafif Only Sultan autobiography (Futuhad-i-Firoz shahi /“Victories of Firuz Shah” - Small brochure of thirty-two pages - a picture of the mind and attitude of Firuz Shah. It was a political pamphlet written by Firuz to win the sympathy and co-operation of his co-religionists) Sanskrit works translated Policy to nobles - privilege restored. | His agrarian m/s brought prosperity. His public work qualify him as great builder. His patronage - progress of Persian language, literature and Education. | The authors of Tawarikhs were usually learned men: secretaries, administrators, poets and courtiers, who both recounted events and advised rulers on governance, emphasising the importance of just rule. We must also note that: The authors of tawarikh lived in cities (mainly Delhi) and hardly ever in villages. They often wrote their histories for Sultans in the hope of rich rewards. These authors advised rulers on the need to preserve an “ideal” social order based on birth right and gender distinctions. Their ideas were not shared by everybody. |
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Why was Firuz Tughluq regarded as an ideal Muslim king of medieval times? [1983, 20m]
Was the state in the Sultanate period a theocracy? Discuss the new orientation of state policies and administrative principles under Muhammad bin Tughluq. [1988, 60m]
Theocracy (Head of Religion = Head of state) | Critical Examiners |
Many Sultans sought investiture from Caliph. | Sought Caliph to exploit popular sentiments. |
Ulema's immense influence | Only times of weak sultan - not AUK & MBT |
Religious conversion increased; Temples demolished. | Only during wars & battle; not a usual phenomena *Used religion to promote political objective. |
Muslims treated privilege. | Even Muslims paid zakat (religious tax) |
Hindus called Zimmis + pay Jaziya. | Zimmis not derogatory (means protected people). Jaziya as they were not supposed to serve in Army. |
It was just an Islamic state in formal sense.
Examine the responsibility of Firuz Tughluq for the fall of his dynasty. [1985, 20m]
Even before Firuz Tughlaq closed his eyes, the Sultanate of Delhi began to disintegrate. First there was a struggle for power between Prince Muhammad, the eldest surviving son of Firuz, and the wazir Khan-i-Jahan II and then power struggle with slaves. Firuz was not able to decide decisively about his succession. Soon, Firuz died (1388), and a struggle for the Crown began between his sons and grand-sons. The Corp of slaves tried to play the king-maker but failed, and were defeated and dispersed. These events contributed to the decline of his Sultanate.
Though no individual sultan can be held responsible for the downfall of the Delhi sultanate, some of the responsibility for the fall of Sultanat lies with Firoz Tughluq:
Religious intolerance of Firoz Tughluq had alienated Hindu majority and weakened his kingdom. Dr. Ishwari Prasad has commented, “The reforms of Firoz failed to gain confidence of Hindus whose feelings were embittered by his religious intolerance. Altogether they produced a reaction which proved fatal to the interest of the dynasty which was by no means an unworthy representative.”
Ulemas influence on administration also weakened the Sultanate. Dr. U.N. Dey has observed, “His supplication to the ‘Ulemas’ only encouraged a group of unscrupulous selfish people to behave arrogantly and pose themselves as the custodians of Muslim conscience. All these combined to create a situation in which disintegration became inevitable.”
System of decentralization of Firoz also caused disintegration. He gave extensive powers to his nobles and officials which ultimately went against the larger interests of the state. According to Sir Woolesely Haig, “His system of decentralisation accelerated the downfall of his dynasty.”
Firuz tried to give to his nobility a hereditary character. Such an attempt had recurred whenever there was any weakness in the central government, for it strengthened the position of the nobles vis-a-vis the Sultan which became detrimental to the Sultanat.
Next to the nobility, the army was the next most important element in the administration and Firuz tried to make it hereditary. In order to emphasize the hereditary and family character of soldiering, Firuz issued an order that if a soldier became old, he could be deputized by his son, if he had no son by his son-in-law, if he had no son-in-law by his slave. The hereditary soldiers proved inefficient which affected the quality of army badly.
Firuz had undermined the system of dagh or branding of horses which led to the sub-standard horses being produced for service. Normally, horses had to be produced for branding within a year. But many soldiers were not able to do so and Firuz used to grant them extension. Adopting a wholly wrong view of generosity, Firuz once even gave a golden tanka to a distraught soldier so that he could bribe the clerk to pass his sub-standard mount before the year ended.
In the later part of his reign, Firuz seems to have realised that by his mistaken view of generosity, he had undermined the efficiency of the central army. Hence, he ordered the great iqtadars and officers to capture slaves whenever they were at war, and to pick out and send the best of them for the service of the court. In this way, 180,000 slaves were collected. While some of them spent their time in reading and in religious studies, and 12,000 of them became artisans of various types and were dispersed into many parganas, a large central corp of slaves was brought together as an armed guard. This was in addition to the central army.
The Corp of slaves was a counter to the power of the nobility and the standing army, it created a duality in the administration, and went counter to Firuz’s attempt to provide stability by depending upon a cohesive nobility and an army drawn from a band of military-minded families. It was, therefore, no surprise that conflict between the two erupted even before Firuz closed his eyes. The corp of slaves were selfish and disloyal.
Firoz’s failure as a conqueror show his incompetence as a leader which weakened the Sultanate. Neither by temperament nor by training was Firuz Tughlaq cut out to be a great warrior or military leader. He did, however, lead two campaigns to Bengal, raided Orissa and Nagarkot, and led a campaign into lower Sindh. None of them added to the territories of the Delhi sultanat.
Firuz awarded extremely high salaries to the nobles. These salaries were given in terms of grants of iqtas. Right at the beginning of his reign, Firuz had a new valuation (jama) of the income from the lands made. This jama was not revised during the rest of his reign. The nobles, therefore, were the beneficiaries of any extension and improvement of cultivation which took place in their holdings during the period. This affected economic condition of the Sultanat.
Dr. R.C. Majumdar has correctly remarked, “On the whole, in-spite of peace, prosperity and contentment that prevailed during the long reign of Firoz Shah, no one can possibly doubt that his policy and administrative measures contributed to a large extent to the downfall of the Delhi Sultanate, and accelerated the process of decline that had already set in during his predecessor’s reign.”
Decline of DS / Limitations of DS: | Role of Technology and conspiracy in End of Lodi dynasty: |
| The head of the Afghan Lodi clan Bahlul Khan seized the throne of Delhi in 1451 and laid the foundation of the first Afghan kingdom in India. His son Sikandar proved it easy to control the inter-tribal conflicts among the Afghan nobles, his successor Ibrahim failed in the endeavor and it is a well-known established fact that one of his disaffected nobles, Daulat Khan Lodi, the governor of Punjab invited Babur to invade. But, Babur, by using matchlocksmen and field cannons against the Afghan cavalry won the war of Panipat. It is this technological advantage, which was responsible for the victory of Babur. Added to this technological disadvantage carving out petty kingdoms of Jaunpur, Meerut, Bayana, Dholpur, Gwalior, Rapri, Etawa, Kalpi and Sambhal, etc., by the Afghan chieftains weakened the Afghan power. |
Write a short note on: “Main sources of information for the history of the 13th century.” [1987, 20m]
Write a short essay on: “Ziauddin Barani as a historian.” [1994, 20m]
Write a short essay on: “Amir Khusrau was an eminent poet not a historian.” [2000, 20m]
Give a critical assessment of the contributions of Amir Khusarau and Barani to Indo – Persian Literature. [2009, 30m]
Ziauddin Barani (contemporary to Khusrau) | Amir Khusrau and his Works. (adorned court of all Sultans from Balban to Tughlaq) | ||||
b. 1286 in the reign of Sultan Balban. Barani had a high position under the Khalji and flourished well under Muhammad bin Tughluq. Barani’s two well-known works of history are: Tarikh-i-Firozshahi - was completed in 1357.
Fatwa-i-Jahandari - (rulings on temporal government) - describes certain principles of administration and significant ideals of government. | b. 1252 in a Turkish family Etah, UP as Abu Hassan Yaminddin Khusrau. 'Tuti-i-hind' = Parrot of India. Disciple of famous Sufi Nizamuddin Auliya. A prolific writer. Composed about half a million verses. Qiran-us-sadin (1289). It is in verse. Eye witness account meeting between Bughra Khan (Guv of Bengal and his son Mu’izzuddin Kaikubad (Sultan of Delhi). Gives political, socio-cultural life of period. Miftah-ul-Futuh enumerates the military campaigns and victories of Sultan Jalauddin Khalji, which he achieved in the first year after his accession. It is in poetry. Ahiqa (1316), describes the passionate love and marriage of Alauddin’s eldest son prince Khijra Khan and prince Dewal Rani, daughter of Raja Karan of Gujarat. Nuh Sipehr gives a very interesting and authentic sketch of the social and cultural conditions of the period. It describes the reign of Mubarak Shah Khalji. Tughluq nama - his last historical masnavi, composed in the closing years of his life. | ||||
An Authentic Narrator:
Shortcomings:
| Eminent Poet - not a Historian:
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What is your assessment of Ibn Batutah’s Rehla as an important source of Indian history. [2011, 20m]
Shaik Fakah Abu Addullah Muhammad Ibn Batuta and his Rehla. Ibn Batuta was born on January 24, 1304 at Tangier and was a native of Morocco in Africa. He stayed in India for fourteen years(1334-47)of which about eight years were spent in Delhi. Ibn Batuta in his book Rehla gives a short history of the Sultans of Delhi prior to Sultan Muhammad bin Tughluq. The Rehla contains good sketches of Sufi, saints of the age, Indian trade, industries,agriculture products, roads. Traffic, transport ,towns, harbours, sea-coast,shipping, weight and measures, etc..
Ain-ul-Mulk-Multani:
b. Multan. He joined the service of the Delhi Sultan under Khaljis.
Sultan Alauddin Muhammad Shah Khalji (1295-1315) promoted him to the post of governor of Dhar and Ujjain in Malwa.
Sultan MBT bestowed on him many favours and he was made officer-in-charge of the Iqta of Multan.
He continued to enjoy high position and favour during the reign of Sultan FST.
Insha-i-Mahru or Munshat-i-Mahru.
Contains 133 letters on different subjects addressed to the leading and significant personalities of the age.
As these letters are written to officials and distinguished persons, they discuss solutions for most of the economic, social, religious and administrative problems of the period.
The book is an extremely valuable source for the history of the Tughluq dynasty (MBT and FST).
2. Throw light on the Land Revenue System of Sultanate period. [1998, 60m] |
7. Discuss in brief the land-revenue system and judicial administration of the Delhi Sultanate. [2015, 15m] |
3. Identify the main factors that sustained the expansion of urban economy in the Delhi Sultanate. [2009, 30m] |
4. Examine the increasing importance of maritime trade of India during thirteenth to fifteenth centuries. [2010, 30m] |
5. Evaluate the conditions of industries in India from 1200 to 1500 CE. [2013, 20m] |
6. Evaluate critically the conditions of labour from 1200 to 1500 CE on the basis of historical sources. [2013, 15m] |
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