SYLLABUS:
Social and Cultural Developments: The state of indigenous education, its dislocation; Orientalist-Anglicist controversy, the introduction of western education in India; The rise of press, literature and public opinion; The rise of modern vernacular literature; Progress of science; Christian missionary activities in India; Ram Mohan Roy, Brahmo Movement; Devendranath Tagore; Iswarchandra Vidyasagar, Widow Remarriage; The Young Bengal Movement; Dayanada Saraswati, Arya Samaj; Sri Ramakrishna, Swami Vivekananda; The contribution of Indian renaissance to the growth of modern India; Social Reform movements; Religious Reform movements; Women Empowerment; Islamic revivalism – the Feraizi and Wahabi Movements.
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MAINS QUESTIONS:
“The Government of India from Canning to Curzon was regarded‚ as a white man’s burden rather than as a call to creative effort or the preparation for a new era.” Comment. [1995, 20m]
The Christian Missionary propaganda from 1813 onwards was “often insensitive and wounding.” Comment. [1999,]
The year 1813 is very crucial for the Christian missionaries in context to India as they got the legislative backing to spread Christianity in India in the form of charter act of 1813 and administrative machinery of EIC comprised officers like William Forts and Charles Grant who were staunch Christian.
The propaganda of Christian missionary – spread Christianity by alienating people against their own religion by convincing them that religion is cause for there every misery which is best manifested when schools taught children to hate everyone who is not a Christian. School book containing picture where Hindu mother is painted as throwing her child to the crocodile in the Ganga, the mother is black but baby is painted white to arouse more sympathy. The Hindu men were shown burning their wives so that they may become a ghost and torment the husband’s enemy. Such activities of missionary annihilated the self-confidence and self-esteem of natives. No doubt they introduced modern education and carried out many philanthropist works in India but that too had a hidden agenda which is well unveiled in Gandhiji’s discussion with missionaries where they acknowledged “the institutions and services are indeed incidental that the aim is to gather a fuller harvest of converts for the Church”. Thus Gandhiji wrote: “If I had the power and could legislate, I should stop all proselytizing…. it is the deadliest poison that ever sapped the fountain of truth.”
Most of the European Indologists too were far from being the objective scholars. The two most prominent Indologists Max Muller and Monier-Williams, both committed to uprooting and destroying Hinduism as Max Muller, wrote in a letter to his wife. “…I still have a lot of work to do… my translation of the Veda will hereafter tell to a great extent on the fate of India and on the growth of millions of souls in that country. It is the root of that religion and to show them what the root is, I feel sure, is the only way of uprooting all that has sprung from it during the last 3,000 years.”
Monier-Williams told the Missionary Congress held at Oxford on 2 May 1877, “The chief obstacle to the spread of Christianity in India is that these people are proud of their tradition and religion.” His dictionary, he hoped, would enable the translation of the Bible into Sanskrit and “when the walls, of the mighty fortress of Brahminism are encircled, undermined, and finally stormed by the soldiers of the Cross, the victory of Christianity must be signal and complete.”
Orientalism produced a knowledge of the past to service the needs of the Colonial States.” Elucidate. [2011, 20m]
Orientalism = promoting and preserving vernacular languages, laws and customs.
The period of Orientalism can be said to begin from 1773-Warren hasting -1832 Lord Macaulay.
What made Britishers to follow orientalism?
Orientalism was not due to love for the oriental culture rather it was strategic tool to serve the infant British administration. When hasting became governor general in 1773 the bureaucratic machinery of EIC was corruption ridden and incompetent because of low cultural and emotional attachment with the native. Thus the quickest way to increase the efficiency and honest was to developed love and affection for India, its language, culture (fort William college in Calcutta). This also helped Hasting to placate Indian sentiments.
Orientalism also helped them to morally justify the colonialism. This done when William Jones established relationship between Indo-European Family of language. This relationship was tagged with Max-Mueller’s Aryan migration theory which developed the kinship between Britishers and Indians but it was said that once golden Indian civilization got degenerated and British superior generation are here to revive it.
Some Exceptions were there – orientalism was proved more than legitimization of colonialism –
H.T Colebrooke, an Orientalist, pushed for the establishment of a museum on the premises of the Asiatic Society to preserve and display the vestiges of India’s past while also criticizing the practice of Sati as having no validation in the shastras, calling for its abolition thus, demanding a change in ancient traditions.
The special enthusiasm of the Germans (such as Max Mueller) in studying the Orient was not to serve imperialism as Germany was not involved in any imperial projects in India.
Review the educational policy of the English East India Company. To what extent did it serve the imperial interests of Great Britain? [1988, 60m]
What was the Anglicisit-Orientalist controversy about? How was it resolved and with what results? [1990, 60m]
Anglicist - Orientalist Controversy which went for more than a decade finally exploded when public fund of 100,000 rupees per year was provided for the improvement of literature and promotion of knowledge of science among the natives, through the Charter Act of 1813.
The question which arose was regarding the nature of education to be provided to Indians. The whole Anglicist-Orientalist controversy revolved around this question. But behind this question lay a serious issue concerning the attitude of British towards Indian society, Indian education and the modes of British imperialism. It exemplified both the shift in the role of EIC and the ideological shift that was taking place in Britain itself.
Orientalist had respect for traditional Indian Culture. Hastings policy of Orientalism included an attempt to learn about Indian culture through study of scriptures in Sanskrit and Persian languages to use that knowledge in matters of governance. This led to the establishment of Asiatic Society of Bengal, the Calcutta Madrassa and the Sanskrit College at Banaras.
But with the end of Hasting's tenure there was a gradual move away from Orientalism. Lord Cornwallis went for greater Anglicisation of the administration. With the coming of Christian missionaries and European individuals like David Hare, various schools opened in different parts of India where English became the medium of instruction. Even RRR argued that modernisation of India would come through English education and dissemination of knowledge of the western sciences.
This controversy was resolved when William Bentinck, utilitarian took over as governor general in 1828. During his tenure, Macaulay issued his famous 'Minutes on Indian Education' in 1835. It became the blueprint for the introduction of English Education in India. This turned the scale in favour of Anglicist. Macaulay advocated education in European literature and sciences through the medium of English.
There were various reasons behind the shift from Orientalism to Anglicism such as -
For missionaries, it was supposed to open the gates for Proselytization of the Indians.
For Utilitarian it was the ultimate fulfilment of Britain's imperial mission.
Most importantly, it reduced the cost of governing India by Indian-ising the subordinate positions in the administrative structure.
But introduction of English allowed Indians to explore modern ideas like imperialism, colonialism, nationalism, etc. It also contributed in the rise of an intellectual middle class which played an important role in the development of national consciousness. Thus, Indians selectively adopted this knowledge and some of them deployed it to interrogate colonial role itself.
The British Indian State experienced the ‘wind of change’ with the arrival of Lord William Bentinck. Comment. [1999, 20m]
“Peace hath her victories no less renowned than war.” Examine this statement with reference to Lord William Bentinck. 2016.
Akbar, Hyder Ali, Tipu Sultan became renowned personalities as they won the wars and established their kingdoms. But these victories are short lived. They remain on the pages of history. They also remain as a bitter wound in the heart of those who are conquered.
Lord William Bentinck served as Governor General of India during 1828 to 1835. His tenure is known for the social reforms such as Abolition of Sati in 1829, Suppression of Thugi, and Suppression of Infanticide etc.
English was introduced as a medium of higher education on the advice of his council member, Thomas Babington Macaulay. A pact with Maharaja Ranjit Singh was made. Charter act 1833 was passed by which East India Company ceased to be a trading company. Some corrective measures in civil services were taken. This seven years period was an epoch for administrative reforms in India. It started a process by which the Indian population, which is furious of sudden changes, was made to obey the British rulers and administration slowly. Partially this period can be said as of “benevolent administrators”.
There is an inscription on his statue at Calcutta which was penned by Lord Macaulay. He writes: He abolished cruel rites; he effaced humiliating distinctions; he gave liberty to the expression of public opinion; his constant study was to elevate the intellectual and moral character of the nations committed to his charge.
The annexation of the Coorg (in 1834) was the only annexation effected by Lord William Bentinck.
It has been argued that the reforms he initiated and those that followed in the next 20 years—which accelerated the westernization of India—were partly responsible for the Indian army’s Mutiny of 1857.
Bentinck showed great courage and humanity by his decision to abolish suttee (sati), the Hindu custom of burning widows alive with the corpses of their husbands. He borrowed useful elements from the creed of his liberal Whig ancestors and of Bentham and combined them in policies that were sensible, practical, and humanitarian.
“India broke her British fetters with Western hammers.” Comment. [1997, 20m] [2002, 20m]
Western bondage = colonial rule and exploitative character;
Western method = constitutional agitations; protest, prayer and petition; use of press; mass mobilization; even revolutionary nationalism got penetrated into Indian soil through western doors.
“Young Bengal left little distinctive or permanent impression on the plane of religion and philosophy.” Critically evaluate. [2011, 30m]
YB movement was launched in Calcutta by a group of radical Bengali thinkers, called DEROZIANS, after their Anglo Indian Teacher, emerging from Hindu College.
Henry Louis Vivian Derozio was a radical thinker and one of the 1st Indian educators to disseminate Western Learning and science among the young men of Bengal. Derozians were inspired and excited by the spirit of free thought and revolt against the existing social and religious structure of the Hindu society.
Derozians formed in 1832 the "society for Acquisition of General Knowledge" where they discussed various aspects of western science and stood for a number of social reforms such as prohibition of caste taboo, child marriage, kulin polygamy or the ban on the widow remarriage, yet they could not usher in the desired age of reform.
Historian Sumit Sarkar concludes: the YB, the followers of Derozio, left little distinctive or permanent impression on the plane of religion and philosophy. The reasons were following:
Total faith in British and in English education with rationalism and values derived from the west set them apart from the masses of Indians. Their professed atheism was too radical for masses.
Their stand lacked much positive content and they failed to develop a progressive ideology.
Because of their limited and shaky ideology they failed to fully capture public's attention. They never succeeded in organizing any social reform movement in support of their proposed reforms, because social conditions were not yet ripe for their ideas to flourish.
The common people who were not acquainted with those ideologies, indicated those young as arrogant, revolutionists of the customary thinking, belief, and extremist as they had declared one kind of war against the religion and prevalent customs. Radical politics of western type were hardly possible in Bengal at that time.
Derozians did not take up the peasant's cause and there was no other class or group in Indian society at the time which could support their advanced ideas. They forgot to maintain their links with the people. In fact, their radicalism was bookish; they failed to come to grips with Indian reality.
They failed to gather support from other Bengali literati or academics. Raja RAM Mohan Roy was himself out of sympathy with them. Ram Mohan's sense of decency and theistic idealism was absent in this movement.
Hence they made some mark in their day, but, nonetheless, they faded out slowly.
Though there were some temporary and indirect impression of the YBM because:
YBM was one of the earliest reform movement which produced several reformers like TARACHAND CHAKRABARTI.
A number of Derozians later attracted to the Brahmo Samaj which contributed to many social reforms.
Derozio was an atheist but his ideas are generally believed to be partly responsible for the conversion of many upper caste Hindus to Christianity.
SN Banerjee, the famous leader of Nationalist movement, described the Derozions as "pioneers of the modern civilization of Bengal, the conscript fathers of our race whose virtues will excite veneration and whose failings will be treated with gentlest consideration."
Hence the YBM was like a mighty storm that tried to sweep everything before it, but hardly left any permanent impact.
“Ram Mohan thus presents a most instructive and inspiring study for the New India of which he is the type and pioneer.” Comment. [1982, 20m] [1986, 20m]
He was the first of the modernisers of Hinduism. RRR gave impetus to the Bengali prose literature and Bengali journalism.
Ram Mohan was no mere religious reformer, but a stout social reformer who sought to eradicate the prevalent social evils and to introduce what was good for the society and the people. He was a great pioneer of English education and he not only founded institutions for the purpose, but stretched his helping hand to whosoever had wanted it.
It was only natural that Ram Mohan who sought dissemination of Western ideas as a part of his campaign for reforms should turn to Press as a vehicle. His journal Sambad Kaumudi (1821) expressed Ram Mohan’s liberal ideas powerfully. Ram Mohan also established two papers named Mirat-Akbar and Jame-Jahan Numa in Persian.
Ram Mohan was an ardent believer in the freedom of the Press and when John Adam, the officiating Governor-General promulgated a Regulation which restricted the freedom of the Press, Ram Mohan protested against the measure and submitted a petition to the Supreme Court for the rejection of the Regulation.
Ram Mohan’s idea of freedom embraced all countries of the world. To him humanity was one family and the sorrow or happiness of one nation constituted the sorrow or happiness of the rest of the world. When a constitutional government had been established in Spain he threw a public dinner in Calcutta Town Hall.
Indianisation of the British Indian Army, separation of the judiciary from the executive, codification of criminal and civil laws, consultation of the Indians before initiating any law and substitution of English for Persian as Court language were the other measures advocated by Ram Mohan Roy.
Ram Mohan’s English biographer rightly observes that he “presents a most instructive and inspiring study for the new India of which he is the type and pioneer. He embodies the new spirit, its freedom, its large human sympathy, its pure and sifted ethics, along with its reverent but not uncritical regard for the past and prudent disinclination towards revolt”. “Ram Mohan Roy laid the foundation of all the principal movement for the enervation of the Indians.”
In 1817, the universally respected chief pandit at the supreme court, Mrityunjaya Vidyalankar Chattopadhyaya, was officially asked to give a vyavastha (ruling) on sati. After consulting some 30 texts belonging to various schools, he concluded that though burning was termed optional, it was still not to be recommended. Vidyalankar’s tract became the unacknowledged starting point for Ram Mohan Roy in his anti-sati campaign.
“Though Sri Ramakrishna became the prophet of neo-Hinduism, he never claimed to have founded any new religion.” Elaborate.
A product of the Hindu religious ethos, he demonstrated that the experience of God can be Pagan, Hindu, Christian or Islamic- an experience in which no frontiers exist and no demands are made on sensory knowledge. He did not propagate a new religion or a new philosophy.
Despite his Hindu roots, however, many of Ramakrishna's ideas and practices were derived, not from the ancient wisdom of classical Hinduism, but from the non-Vedic religious outlooks of Islam and liberal Christianity.
Swami Ramakrishna, who propagated a form of neo-Vedantism or the practical application of Vedanta philosophy, earned fame as someone who got ‘strange fits of God consciousness. Because of his simple interpretations of Hinduism, which became immensely popular among the western educated Bengal people, he is often considered as the prophet of neo-Hinduism.
The teachings of Swami Ramakrishna proclaimed that the realization of God is only possible through knowledge and devotion of the highest human ideal. And, in order to achieve this ideal, one has to strive for a spiritual life style which is beyond the lure of material happiness and prosperity and without the desire for things such as Gold, women etc. However, he never professed renouncing the worldly life. The idea was to achieve ‘nirvana’ or ‘salvation’ while still being in family life with all the worldly responsibilities.
However, even with his charismatic interpretation of Hinduism and teaching the ways of salvation, he fell short of founded any new religion and religious doctrines. He always preached eclectic religion and did not belong to or founded any school of thought.
His disciples however made efforts to realize the ideal of Swami Ramakrishna by setting up the Ramakrishna Mission headed by Swami Vivekananda. The mission operates with a religious zeal and try to achieve the realization of divinity in humanity by making service to mankind, which was the prime idea of Swami Ramakrishna.
Though he saw himself as being primarily Hindu, Ramakrishna believed that all religions aimed at the same supreme destination. He experimented briefly with Muslim, Christian and a wide variety of Hindu practices, blending, mixing and matching practices and beliefs as they appealed to him at any given moment. In 1875, Ramakrishna met Keshub Chandra Sen, the then leader of the neo-Hindu Brahmo Samaj. Sen introduced Ramakrishna to the close-knit community of neo-Hindu activists who lived in Calcutta, and would in turn often bring these activists to Ramakrishna's satsangas. Ramakrishna ended up being one of the most widely popular of neo-Hindu Radical Universalists.
Swami Vivekananda opined that “we should give our ancient spirituality and culture and get in return western science, technology, methods of raising the standard of life, business integrity and technique of collective effort.” [2013, 10m]
In the teachings of SV one finds a strange but unique combination of modern rationalism and ancient mysticism. One of the most remarkable contribution of SV was to bring spirituality to the mind and heart of common people. In 1899 he established the Belur Math near Calcutta which became centre of RK Mission’s activities. The same year he visited US. He died in 1902 at the age of 39.
Swami Vivekananda had famously said, “Education is not the amount of information that is put into your brain and run riots there, undigested all your life. We must have life-building, man-making, character-making and assimilation of ideas.”
Swami Vivekananda was one of the first among Dharmic teachers to understand the importance of science and technology. In the first place, Swamiji saw that poor countries like India would be able to overcome poverty and backwardness only by mastering technology. Secondly, Swamiji saw that science is not contradictory to the eternal spiritual principles, which is the foundation of Indian culture. Both Science and eternal principles of Dharma are concerned with truth. Science seeks truth in the physical world, whereas dharma seeks truth in the spiritual realm. He put his thoughts into action when he urged JRD Tata to setup IISC for the sake of furthering science education in India.
“Widow Remarriage Act was, in many ways, a logical sequel to the abolition of Sati.” Comment. [1994, 20m]
In the beginning the British adopted the policy of non-interference in religious and social matter of the natives for the fear of upsetting the orthodox class. But this changed with the coming of Lord William Bentinck. The inhuman practise of SATI drew his attention. The burning of the widow on the funeral pyre of her husband was a practise widely prevalent particularly in Bengal and Rajasthan. The practise was certainly barbaric.
Some liberal Hindu reformers like RRR, and Devendranath Tagore pleaded to ban it by law. Bentinck after getting assured that there was no possibility of any rebellion if a law was passed against the practise, declared the practice of SATI illegal in 1829. The law applied to Bengal first but then in 1830 the governments of Madras and Bombay also passed the law declaring SATI as illegal.
But just the abolition of SATI did not make the lives of Indian women easier. If someone's husband dies then she had to face lot of hardships and discrimination. The widows were not allowed to remarry. The sufferings of Hindu widows aroused humanism in ISHWAR CHANDRA VIDYASAGAR, who waged a long struggle in favour of widow remarriage. To improve their lot he started a powerful movement. Later in 1855 a large number of petitions from Bengal, Madras, Bombay and other cities of India were presented to the government asking it to pass an act legalising the remarriage of widows. Thus, the Widow Remarriage Act was passed in 1856. The first lawful Hindu Widow remarriage among the upper castes was celebrated in Calcutta on 7th December 1856 in the presence of IC Vidyasagar.
Thus, the passing of Widow Remarriage Act was a logical sequel to the abolition of Sati. These legislations definitely helped to improve the condition of women in the pre-Independence Era.
The non-Brahmanical social Reformers like Jotirao Phule also attacked the enforced celibate (अविवाहित) widowhood.
“The Arya Samaj may quite logically be pronounced as the outcomes of conditions imported into India by the west.” Comment. [2009, 20m]
Arya Samaj was founded by Dayanand Saraswati in 1875 as a socio-religious movement which aimed at reforming Hinduism through propagation of the infallibility of Vedas as the source of all truths.
The opposition of idolatory, polytheism, rituals, caste system and child marriage and support for widow remarriage, inter-caste marriage and female education were reform policies of Arya Samaj.
Authors are divided on the question of extent to which western influence shaped the policy of reformers like Dayanand Saraswati.
First Viewpoint: Arya Samaj as the outcome of the influence of the West.
Lala Lajpat Rai said, “the Arya Samaj was quite logically be pronounced as the outcome of conditions imported into India by the West”. Jawahar Lal Nehru writes that Arya Samaj was a reaction to the influence of Islam and Christianity.
Some argue that British occupation of India with its allegiance to Protestant Christianity inspired the modern iconoclasm like Arya Samaj which eventually led to the development of esoteric (गुप्त) form of Hinduism that advocated philosophical monism and denounced religious imagery as idolatrous.
The reform policies of the Arya Samaj do show western influence as oppositions to the idolatory, polytheism etc was same as in Christianity and the socio-religious reforms propagated by Arya Samaj were those which the western reformers were already advocating.
Also the British, due to their developed scientific and modern outlook, presented India as a backward culture with stagnant society. Arya Samaj tried to revive the self-confidence in Indians through reforms and giving the call for Swarajya as “India for Indians”. Hence, Arya Samaj was the outcome of the reaction to the British.
Second Viewpoint: Arya Samaj was not influenced by the West.
HAR BILAS SARDA remarks that there was no influence of western civilization on Dayanand Saraswati as he did not know English and was in no way influenced by European culture and European thought. The inspiration of Dayanand Saraswati was derived entirely from the indigenous sources.
Dayanand claimed that idol worship, polytheism, rituals, etc are alter additions to Hinduism and not as per Vedas. For him, Vedas were the final authority in Hindu religion. He used Vedas to oppose social evils like caste system, child marriage etc.
The argument that he borrowed ideas of women empowerment, widow remarriage, etc from Western tradition is not well founded as he did not know English. Also he started the Suddhi movement to reconvert non-Hindus which was in no way having influence of the West.
Conclusion:
Better explanation could be that, it is not that ideas migrated from West to India, but in exposure to West brought out the elements already present in Hinduism. Hence, the condition brought by the West to India led to the reformers like Dayanand Saraswati to found Arya Samaj to propagate the reform ideas rooted in ancient Indian sources like Vedas. It was also a better idea to connect the reform to indigenous sources as it would attract the masses and face lesser opposition from conservative elements.
“Swami Dayanand’s philosophy represents both elements of extremism and social radicalism.” Substantiate. [2015, 20m]
The Arya Samaj “did not; however, succeed in capturing the imagination of modern India as a whole.” Comment. [1998, 20m]
The main tenets of Arya Samaj were -
Working on these principles, the Arya Samaj did remarkably useful work for reforming the Hindu Society and Religion. A large number of educational institutions were established by the Arya Samaj, such as Gurukuls, Kanya-Gurukuls and DAV Schools and colleges. | Arya Samaj also contributed towards arousing national consciousness. Swami Dayananda was the first person to use the term 'Swaraj'. He was the first to insist on people using only Swadeshi things manufactured in India and to discard foreign things. But despite these developments there were certain traits in the Arya Samaj movement which gave it certain negative connotations. For instance -
Thus, no doubt Arya Samaj made remarkable contributions towards Indian Society, education and National Consciousness but its religious work tended , though unconsciously, to divide the growing national unity among Hindus, Muslims, Christians and Sikhs. It gradually moved from reformism to revivalism and sowed the seeds of communalism. Hence, it failed the imagination of modern India as a whole. |
To what extent did the socio-religious movements contribute to the emancipation of women in the 19th century? [1993, 60m]
Review the main trends in the Social Movements in India from 1900 to 1947 with particular reference to the changing position .of women in the country. [1984, 60m]
“Of the evils which corroded Indian society in the nineteenth century were probably those which stunted its womanhood.” Comment. [2007, 20m]
How did social legislation in the nineteenth century improve the condition of women in India? [2009, 30m]
The socio-religious reform movements of the 19th century did not fundamentally challenge the caste and gender hierarchies of the Indian society. Evaluate.
The social reform movements of the 19th century can be broadly categorised as those which frontally challenged the prevalent caste and gender hierarchies on one hand like Young Bengal Group of Henry Vivian Derozio and Brahmo Samaj under KC Sen which actively promoted inter-caste marriages, widow remarriage etc. On the other hand, those which had a more reformist orientation such as the Atmiya Sabha established by Ram Mohan Roy in 1815 (which later developed into Brahmo Samaj in 1828) and Prarthana Samaj founded in Bombay in 1867.
While the confrontationist approach of the former failed to produce any lasting impact upon the society by virtue of its upper caste, English speaking character which intended to define itself as separate from Hindus and thus failed to establish any substantial connect with the masses.
The latter were trying to rediscover reason and science within their own civilization and reposition the modernization project within space defined by Indian tradition. While the Vedas were used to legitimize their attack on idolatory, polytheism, to abolish sati, child marriage, promote inter-caste marriage and widow remarriage, they principally employed the legislative route to prohibit such acts.
However, these reforms remained on paper in most cases. Moreover many movements ended up becoming more revivalist than reformist in character - for example, Arya Samaj criticized untouchability but justified the four fold Varnashrama system and became pre-occupied with Suddhi movements and cow protection agendas. The real substantial battle on caste related issues were fought after the arrival of Gandhi, Ambedkar and Periyar in the first half of 20th Century on the Indian political scene.
The challenge to gender hierarchy turned out to be even weaker on the ground, visible in the fact that though the early reformers like Vidya Sagar, Bethune etc emphasised upon women education, however till 1882, female education progressed very little (98% of women in school going age group remained uneducated).
Even the educated middle class women who gained from the action of reformists failed to challenge the stranglehold of Patriarchy as the motive behind educating them was never their emancipation, rather it was supposed to help them become better wives, better mothers, etc. With a few honourable exceptions like Pandita Ramabai, women remained passive recipients of male patronage and never became involved in these reformist projects.
Thus, ironically thought the reformist projects were a step in the right direction questioning gender related issues with the ideals of equality and rationality, yet the whole discourse of women rights took place under the umbrella of patriarchal ideology which restricted women to the domestic sphere.
Role of women in 19th century India: Women’s question became part of discourse of modernity and progress and a movement for female’s education started. The agency consisted of British rulers, Indian Male reformers and Educated Indian women.
Muslim educators of women remain conservative - Goal of Muslim educators of women was to create better wives, better mothers and better Muslims.
Early Indian Educated Women and female empowerment / literary history:
Pandita Ramabai in Western India – she challenged the new role model of educated but compliant wives; A Brahmin women well educated in Shastras, married a Sudra defying all caste restrictions. Became a widow with infant daughter, went to England to study medicine, converted to Christianity, raised widow’s home in Bombay.
Sister Subbalakshmi in Madras
Begum Rokeya Sakhawat Hussain among Muslim Women in Bengal, wrote Sultana’s Dream in 1905 to practise her English skills when she was merely 25 years old.
Tarabai Shinde – against Public Stereotyping of women. Her book ‘A comparison between Women and Men’ protested against the fact that men enjoyed all benefits of change while women were to remain prativrata.
At the age of 60, Rashsundari Devi wrote her autobiography in Bangla in 1860.
Ismat Chugtai (post-colonial period) was a liberal Muslim writer and considered to be a path-breaking woman writer.
Why did even colonial state tended to confine women to domesticity? Shinde and Ramabai were exceptions as most women knew their boundaries. Even colonial state tended to confine women to domesticity for there they would be safe both for themselves and for the state. The Hindu laws, Islamic laws and new statutory laws sanctified the rights of patriarchal family. It was in this area that there was a ‘broad degree of consensus between colonial state and nationalist male elites’.
Why and how did valorisation of domesticity of women affect peasant families?
Valorisation of domesticity of women also affected peasant families. Earlier the restrictions on lower caste labouring women’s freedom was less rigorous. But during the 19th century this began to erode under the influence of ‘Sanskritization’. Purity of women became an index of the status of caste.
More and more lower and middle castes began to enforce celibate ascetic widowhood on their women as it became symbol of high status, indeed a means of social mobility – both in Bengal and Maharashtra.
It was not simply coming of mechanisation that saw women lose out on jobs. For example, coming of rice mills, women employed in rice husking began to lose out since rice mills was male domain. Even when women worked their wage was supplementary and they were deemed unskilled. The ideology of domesticity was reinforced. Even when women protested against pay inequality there was no change as unions valued more their motherhood than their economic rights and freedom.
Do you agree with the view that the growth of vernacular literature in the 19th and the 20th centuries paved the way for social reform and cultural revival in India? [2016]
[Persian, Sanskrit, Bengali - RRR, Arya, Tagore, Iqbal]
“The educated middle class in the 19th century often found the domain of reason to be oppressive, as it implied the historical necessity of ‘civilizing’ colonial rule.” Comment. [2010, 20m]
“The vernacular press in the nineteenth century was both newspaper as well as ‘views-papers’ that enlightened the dormant masses.” Comment. [2008, 20m] [2011, 20m]
Indian Press played a very crucial role during pre-independence era. Between 1870 and 1918 powerful newspapers emerged, such as - KESARI and MAHRATTHA under Tilak, BENGALEE under SN Banerjee, AKHBAR-i-AM in Punjabi etc. All the major political leaders in India either owned a newspaper or were contributing their writings to one or the other. The vernacular press in 19th Century India served not just as newspapers but more as views-papers which is evident from -
The Vernacular Press became the chief instrument for carrying out the main political tasks i.e. political propaganda, education and formation and propagation of nationalist ideology.
The circulation was confined not only to cities rather it reached to remote villages. A reader would then read them to the others who were not able to read.
These vernacular newspapers raised local issues as well as national problems and reading and discussing them became a form of political participation.
These newspapers made people aware about the views of different nationalist leaders.
Vernacular Press spread awareness about modern ideas of nationalism, imperialism etc in the local language which aroused people even in the remotest area.
Proceedings of INC were also published in vernacular newspapers, keeping the people informed about the resolutions and other political developments.
Due to the rising role of vernacular press, the British took actions against it -
Vernacular Press Act of 1878 - was passed by Lord Lytton. The act ordered the confiscation of the printing press and other materials of the vernacular newspaper if the government found that it was publishing instigative materials and flouted any regulations of the government.
Section 124A of the IPC - whoever attempts to excite feelings of disaffection for the government established by law in British India was to be punished.
Despite these laws and regulations vernacular press continued to kindle the spirit of nationalist consciousness among the common people. These newspapers continued to spread the opinions and views of political leaders and at the same time helped in framing the views of the common folks. Thus, these were not just newspapers, but more importantly views-papers that enlightened the dormant masses.
Trace the course and comment on the character of caste movements in south India in the 20th century. How far was their object achieved? [1995, 60m]
What led to the Caste Movements in Western and Southern India? How did they affect the local socio-political life? [1989, 60m]
Analyses the main contours of Non-Brahmin Movements in Western and South India in the nineteenth and first half of the twentieth century. [1991, 60m]
Causes of caste movements in western and southern India | Effects on local socio-political life of the region |
Education among lower and immediate castes led to their raising of voice against Brahmanical domination. Sanskritization, a process by which lower caste borrows customs, manners and taboos from higher caste, led to these movements. Examples: Lingayat of Karnataka and the Marathas. Prevalent economic inequality caused social economic stratification. Post-independence, Indian govt. recognised historically discriminated communities which led to their further consolidation and awareness of their right. In south India the Brahmins took more advantage of modern educational and employment opportunities than the upper non-Brahmin castes, secured government jobs, and thus tried to maintain Brahmin preponderance in government service. The upper-caste non-Brahmins of Tamil Nadu did not believe in Sanskritization. They challenged the higher status of the Brahmins. The non-Brahmins preferred to consider themselves Dravidians, i.e., natives of the area, and considered Brahmins alien intruder. | In Maharashtra, rich peasant non-Brahmin elite with strong roots in villages and cooperatives swept Brahmin intelligentsia from political power. The non-Brahmins of Tamil Nadu demanded a separate state for the Dravidians. Some of the backward or non-Brahmin castes in Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu formed political party to capture political power. The demands for reservation in government jobs and educational institutions for the backward castes began to be raised repeatedly in the post-independence period. Example - currently Patidar in Gujarat. Rise in number of caste federations which plays role in electoral politics. Example – Kothari of Gujarat. |
“The religious reform movements of the 19th century were‚ endeavours to recast the old religion (Hinduism) into a new form suited to meet the needs of the new society.” Comment. [1996, 20m]
“These religion-reform movements were national in content but religious in form. It was in the later stages of our national existence, that nationalism found exclusively or predominantly secular forms.” Comment. [1985, 20m]
“The national democratic awakening of the Indian people found expression also in the religious sphere.” Comment. [2005, 20m]
This national democratic awakening of the 19th century could not be confined to political sphere and found manifestation in religious realm also. There were efforts to reform and revitalize the Indian religious system. Several efforts were made for religious reform. Raja Rammohan Ray started efforts to aid the popular religion of superstitions, which was exploited by ignorant and corrupt priests. He carried on persistent struggle against the polytheism, worship of idols, and the prevalence of meaningless religious rituals. He condemned the priestly class for encouraging there practices.
He held that all the principal ancient texts of the Hindus preached monotheism or worship of one god. He published Bengali translation of Vedas and Upanishads to prove his point.
Swami Dayanand Saraswati believed that selfish and ignorant priests had perverted Hindu religion with the aid of the Puranas which he said were full of lies. For his own inspiration, Swami Dayanand turned to the Vedas which he regarded as infallible being the inspired word of God, and as the fountain-head of all knowledge.
His approach to the Vedas however had a nationalist aspect because the Vedas, though revealed had to be rationally interpreted by himself and others, who were human beings. Thus, individual reason was the deciding factor. Similarly, among the Muslims, Sir Syed Ahmed Khan carried the banner of religions reform. He was tremendously impressed by modern scientific thought and worked all his life to reconcile it with Islam.
He declared Quran above to be the authority's work of Islam and held all other Islamic writings to be secondary. Even the Quran he interpreted was in the light of contemporary rationalism and science. He held any interpretation of Quran as conflicting with human reason to be a misinterpretation.
The awakening found expansion also in Gurudwara reform movement among Sikhs and in the Temple Entry movement in the twenties.
** If Hindu minds had responded to Western influence with a desire to learn, the first reaction of the Muslim community was to shut them in a shell and resist western impact. The earliest organised Muslim response of Western influences appeared in from of the Wahabi movement (which may be more aptly being called the Walliulsah movement). It was essentially a revivalist movement. Contrast Sir SYED A Khan’s movement.
“There is no other instance in the history of mankind of a poet and philosopher working such as a miracle in shaping the destiny of his people.” Comment. [2007, 20m] (M.Iqbal)
Mohammad Iqbal was a great and popular poet and also a eminent Muslim philosopher who was responsible to guide the political ideology of Muslims. He wrote mostly in Persian or Urdu and his poetic collection is known as ‘Asrar-e-Khudi’ (secrets of the self).
He studied Law and Philosophy in London and became member of London branch of Muslim League. He called for pan-Islamism and criticized prevalent Muslim politicians for their factionist attitude and lack of mass support.
Arising from a desire to awaken the Muslim Ummah and drawing upon inspiration from western existentialists like Nietzsche, and Muslim spiritual teachers he empowers the Muslim individual.
He was of the opinion that secularism would influence badly Islamic culture, religion and society and in Hindu-majority democratic political system would overshadow Muslim rights, heritage and culture.
He influenced greatly thoughts of Jinnah later and in 1930 propounded the theory of two-nation but he did not speak of partition as such.
Also, he rejected tolerance towards rebellious thought within Islam, like that of Ahmadiyyas.
In Pakistan, incidents of violence against non-Muslims and sects like Ahmadiyyas happen more frequently and its blasphemy laws are a matter of concern. This can be seen as a manifestation of intolerance in Iqbal’s teachings.
Examine the main trends in social reform and social change in India between 1829 and 1929. [1979, 60m]
Discuss the important social reform legislation passed in the 19th century and elucidate the reaction of Indian leaders to the measures adopted. [2000, 60m]
The 19th century Indian renaissance was both an acceptance and rejection of western values. Do you agree? [1997, 60m]
Discuss the extent to which the Indian Renaissance movement contributed towards the rise of nationalist consciousness. [2010, 30m]
“The first point to note is the continuing importance of religion and philosophy as vital ingredients in the modern Indian renaissance. Indeed, there is as much reason for regarding it as a reformation as there is for treating it as a renaissance.” Critically examine. [2013, 25m]
“The contact of the new Indian middle class with the West proved to be a catalyst. The social and religious movements launched by Ram Mohan or Iswar Chandra Vidyasagar have to be understood in this context.” – Elucidate. [2012, 10m]
| Analysis of the reform movements of the 19th century brings out several common features: |
RRR and Social Reforms, Journalism (Samvad Kaumudi, various languages journals), religious reforms, Brahmo Samaj. Henry Vivian Derozio and Young Bengal Movement. Debendranath Tagore and Social movements, revitalising Brahmo Samaj. KC Sen and Women Empowerment reforms. IC Vidyasagar and Sanskrit College, Bethune School, Women Empowerment Reforms. RK Paramhansa and Spiritual Awakening. Swami Vivekananda and Cultural Revival, RK Mission. Dayanand Saraswati and Arya Samaj. In Western India – JR Phule and Truth; Prarthana Samaj and Women; In South India – Annie Besant and Theosophical Society. Nawab Abdul Latif and Mohammad Literary Society 1863. SA Khan and MAO. Parsi Religious Reform Society 1851. Baba Dayal Das and Nirankar movement among Sikhs. Akali Dal M – Gurudwara Management. Women Reformers – Pandita Ramabai, Sarojini Naidu. Literature and Press – R Tagore, BC Chattopadhyay; Iqbal. | All the reformers propagated the idea of one God and the basic unity of all religions.
All the reformers attacked priesthood, rituals, idolatry and polytheism.
The reformers attempted to improve the status of girls and women in society.
By attacking the caste system and untouchability, the reformers helped to unify the people of India into one nation. The reform movements fostered feelings of self-respect, self-reliance and patriotism among the Indians. While the Brahma Samaj & Theosophical Society appealed to English educated elite only Dayanand's message was for the masses of India also. M/o Theosophical society believed - special relationship can be established bw a person's soul and God by contemplation, prayer revelation etc. Rahnumai Mazadayasnan Sabha - regeneration of social condition of the Parsis and the restoration of the Zoroastrian religious to its pristine purity.
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Nowhere was the influence of the missionaries felt more than in relation to the women’s movement. [1989, 20m]
Write a critical note on: “Impact of western contact on social changes in the first half of 19th century.” [1981, 20m]
Examine the impact of British rule on Indian Society in the 19th Century. [2004, 60m]
Dress, Food, Habits – Clubs, Boarding Schools.
DOW, DOH, Famines – Poverty.
Divide and Rule.
Contradictions by Indian Historians – Discovery of Past.
Art and Architecture – European styled offices, Bungalows.
Education - English, Vernaculars. ICS. CoI development. Rule of Law.
Modern Transport, Communication, Globalization.
Sati, Age of Consent, Remarriage, Catholicity. Reformation.
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