AH - Aryans and Vedic Period, EVP to LVP

Expansions of Aryans in India. Vedic Period: Religious and philosophic literature; Transformation from Rig Vedic period to the later Vedic period; Political, social and economic life; Significance of the Vedic Age; Evolution of Monarchy and Varna system.

Evaluate the contribution of the Puranas in disseminating secular knowledge among the masses in ancient India. [2013, 15m]

There are 18 Mahapuranas (great puranas) and many more Upapuranas (secondary puranas).
The origins of the puranas may be overlapped to some extent with the vedas, but their composition stretched forward into the 4th-5th centuries CE and in some case even later. 

The Puranas are supposed to have five characteristics (panch - lakshanas) i.e. they are supposed to discuss five topics:

1. The creation of the world (sarga);
2. Re-creation (pratisarga);
3. The periods of the various manus (manvantaras);
4. The genealogies of gods and rishis (vamsha); and
5. An account of royal dynasties (vamshanucharita) including the suryavamshi and chandravamshi kings.

Around this core skeleton of the five subjects any Purana adds other diverse materials like matters of religious concern, customs, ceremonies, sacrifices, festivals, the duties of various castes, different types of donations, details of the construction of temples and images, and descriptions of places of pilgrimage.

The secular knowledge contained in the puranas:

1. The conception of time – The conception of time in the puranas is mind-boggling. There are four ages or yugas – krita, treta, dvapara and kali. One Yuga follows the other and the periodic destruction of the world is followed by its re-creation (BASED on decline/revival of DHARMA).
2. Political History– The puranas especially the Vayu, Brahmanda, Brahma, Harivamsha, Matsya and Vishnu provide useful information on ancient political history. They refer to historical dynasties such as the Haryankas, Shaishunagas, Nandas, Mauryas, Shungas, Kanvas and Andhras (Satavahanas). The dynastic lists end with the Guptas.
3. Historical geography– The puranas have accounts of mountains, rivers, and places, which are useful for the study of historical geography.
4. Intermingling of culture– The puranas also reflect the interactions between the people belonging to different cultural traditions. For ex- the interaction between Brahmanical and non-Brahmanical cultural traditions.

The secular knowledge in some specific Puranas:

• Agni Purana – It has an encyclopaedic character – it deals with subjects like astronomy, geography, grammar, law, medicine, politics etc.
• Garuda Purana – It has also assumed an encyclopaedic form. There are sections on cosmography, astronomy and astrology, omens and portents, medicine, metrics, grammar, knowledge of precious stones (ratnapariksha) and politics (niti).
• Vishnudharmottara Purana – It is a supplement to the Vishnu Puranas is also encyclopaedic in nature. It also talks about the art of painting. It also gives an account of the various branches, methods and ideals of Indian painting.

Discuss the geographical area known to the Rig Vedic people. Were they familiar with the sea? [1985, 60m]

Give an account of the geography of the Vedic texts and describe the social life during the Vedic times. [1979, 60m]

Based on the geographical data in the Vedic literature, we can analyse about the Aryan expansion in India.

• The country of Aryans - used the term Sapta Saindhavas as the region where they settled down.
• The Rivers - Out of thirty-one river mentioned in the Vedic texts, about twenty-five names occur in the hymns of the Rig-Veda alone. In the Nadistuti, the Rig-Veda enumerates several streams most of which belong to the Indus system.
• The Mountains - knew about the Himalayas but did not mention about the land south of the Yamuna, and they did not mentioned the Vindhyas Mountains or Satpura even. 
• The Seas - in the early rig Vedic text is doubtful. However, in the later-Vedic literature, Samudram actually means the sea. There are references to eastern and western oceans in the Satapatha Brahmana.
• The Deserts - not familiar with any kind of desert. However, an implied reference to Maru as the country of desert mounds near Kurukshetra has been traced in Taittiriya Aryanka
• Name of the Places, Cities and Towns - Vedic culture was essentially a rural culture, and cities had not emerged; no important place name is hence recorded. In the Rig-Veda it was because of the migratory nature of the tribes and in the later-Vedic period of the regions comes to be known by the names of the tribes who controlled them

Evaluate the various approaches to the understanding of Vedic religion. [2009, 30m]

• The four Vedas; Rig, Yajur. Sama and Atharva Vedas are seen as Sruti, “heard,” as Revelation and “not human-originated”. Human beings, wise and holy sages, seers and prophets were the human channels of the revealed wisdom.
• They “heard” in their hearts the eternal messages and “saw” and symbolized various names and forms of the One, Sacred, Ultimate Reality, Truth, and God from different perspectives and contexts.
• The Hindu gods and goddesses, worshipped with different “names and forms and qualities are, in reality, many aspects, powers, functions, and symbols of the only one all- pervasive Supreme Being, without a second. The Upanishads, later portions in the Vedas, teach that salvation/liberation is achieved in an experiential way and that oneness with the supreme Reality, Brahman, is possible; the supreme goal, Brahman, is also the One Self, the higher self found in all.
• There are several hymns in the Vedas and other scriptures which categorically declare that there are different approaches and perspectives to God and experience of God and ultimate reality. This also arises, necessarily, from different human contexts. The central teaching, constantly repeated, is: God is one, but names and forms are many; symbols and paths are many.
• Thus, there arose a rich theological and philosophical pluralism within Hinduism creating an internal “parliament of sub-traditions and sub- religions,” but all grounded in the unity of the Vedas and One Brahman. Also, multiplicity is encouraged and thrives by means of the free choice and self-determined identification with one specially loved manifestation of God, Shiva, Krishna, Shakti, Rama, and so on, in pursuing the moral and spiritual path to salvation/ liberation. Because people are at different starting points and stations, Hindu scriptures affirm and accept variety in religious experiences as a necessity and psychological reality.
• Multiplicity brings with it differences, which one cannot destroy or do away with. Yet, the deep commonalities in structures of religious experience and in the profound moral values found in all religions are to be constantly probed and appropriated for the development of a deeper spiritual and human solidarity and fellowship, transcending the cultural and other barriers.

Evaluate the conceptual basis of the Vedic deities. [2011, 30m]

Write a brief essay on: “The Vedic Gods of the terrestrial region.” [1993, 20m]

• The Rig Vedic Gods were predominantly males as was natural in a patriarchal society.
• Since, in the Vedic times the spiritual philosophy was not that developed, the chief object of worship was material gains like male child and victory in wars. Favours of the Gods could be won through worship and sacrifice. A number of domestic and public sacrifices are men­tioned in Rig Veda.
• Vedic people practiced polytheism a belief in many Gods. Some of the popular gods of Vedic times are Prajapati, Indra, Agni, Varuna, Savitri, Urvashi, etc. Vedic religion can also be defined as monotheism i.e. belief and worship of a single God while accepting the existence of other Gods.
• They were deeply impressed by the great phenomenon of nature which they conceived as alive and usually represented in anthropomorphic form. They personified whatever was noble, splendid or striking in nature like trees, animals, air, seas etc.
• They believed that they possess powers of doing good as well as evil to the people, that they must be satisfied by offer of food and drink in order to get boon from them and a vast the evils. Fire was regarded as pious. They, through choice articles of food and drink into it, uttering at the same time hymns of praise to the God to whom articles thrown into the fire to be carried by the fire itself, was regarded as messengers for this pur­pose.
• The chief deities in early days grew out of per­sonification of natural phenomenon, such as the Sky (dyuh), Earth (prthivi), Sky God (Varuna) and God­dess of dawn (Usas). Later on, Abstract deities like Dhatri (establisher), Vidhatri (ordainer), Sraddha (faith) and Manyu (wrath) made their appearance.
• Female di­vinities were also worshipped due to their benevolent aspects. Like Aranyani- lady of the forest, Dishana- goddess of vegetation, Savitri- a solar deity to whom the famous ‘Gayatri Mantra’ was assigned in Rig Veda, and Urvasi- best known Apsara.

What was the position of Varuna in the Vedic system of Gods? [1984, 20m]

Varuna, in the Vedic phase of Hindu mythology, the god-sovereign, the personification of divine authority. He is the ruler of the sky realm and the upholder of cosmic and moral law (rita), a duty shared with the group of gods known as the Adityas (see Aditi), of whom he was the chief. He is often jointly invoked with Mitra, who represents the more-juridical side of their sovereignty—the alliance between one human being and another—while Varuna represents the magical and speculative aspects—the relationship between gods and human beings. He corresponds closely to the Zoroastrian god Ahura Mazdā. In later Hinduism, Varuna plays a lesser role. He is guardian of the west and is particularly associated with oceans and waters. Thus, he is often attended by the river goddesses Ganga and Yamuna.

Position of Aditi in Vedic System:
Aditi, (Sanskrit: “The Boundless”) in the Vedic phase of Hindu mythology, the personification of the infinite and mother of a group of celestial deities, the Adityas. As a primeval goddess, she is referred to as the mother of many gods, including Vishnu in his dwarf incarnation and, in a later reappearance, Krishna. She supports the sky, sustains all existence, and nourishes the earth. It is in the latter sense that she is often represented as a cow.
Her sons, the Adityas, are of uncertain number and identity. Varuna is their chief, and they are called like him “upholders of divine order (rita).” One hymn names them as Varuna, Mitra, Aryaman, Daksha, Bhaga, and Amsha. Sometimes Daksha is excluded and Indra, Savitri (the sun), and Dhatri are added. Occasionally the term is extended to include all the gods. In later periods their number is increased to 12, and they are linked to the 12 solar months of the year. Aditya in the singular form is a name of the sun.

“The Varna concept may always have been largely a theoretical model and never an actual description of society.” Comment in the context of Ancient India. [2013, 15m]

“The Upanishadic principles embody the epitome of the Vedic thought.” Discuss. [2014, 15m]

Write a short essay on:  “Vedic literature” [1995, 20m]

The wisdom and knowledge of the Aryans is contained in their sacred literature, collectively known as the Vedic literature.

Early Vedic Literature:

Later Vedic Literature

The Vedas are the oldest and the most sacred books of the Aryans, and are four in number: the Rigveda, the Samaveda, the Yajurveda and the Atharvaveda. The Brahmanas are the prose texts containing observations on the various sacrificial rites and ceremonies. The Aranyakas, also known as the 'Forest Books', are the concluding portion of the Brahmanas and deal with mysticism and philosophy. The Upanishads are the main source of Indian philosophy and have found an important place in the history of world literature, having been translated into various foreign languages like English, French, German and Persian. They are about 300 in number, the more prominent ones being Isa, Kena, Katha, Mundaka and Brihadranyaka.

The Sutras: They are a collection of the various new customs developed with the passage of time and are divided into three classes- Srauta-Sutras, Griha-Sutras and Dharma-Sutras. Vedangas and Upavedas : Vedangas are a part of Vedic texts and deal with religious practices, pronunciation, grammar, etymology (science of words), metro and astronomy. The Upavedas deal with subjects such as medicine, music, art and architecture and war. The important Upavedas are Ayurveda, Gandharvaveda, Dhanurveda and Shilpaveda. Six Shastras: These are the six well-known schools of Hindu philosophy, known as Darshanas or Shastras. In these, the ancient sages have tried to give answers to certain difficult philosophical questions concerning God, soul, birth and death. These are Sankhya Shastra by Kapila, Yoga Shastra of Patanjali, Nyaya Shastra of Gautama, Vaisheshik Shastra of Kanad, Puna Mimansa of Jamini and Uttarr Mimansa of Vyasa. The Puranas: They are the ancient texts of Hindus and are 18 in number. The Epics: The Ramayana and the Mahabharata are the two great epics of Hindus, which throw an important light on the social, religious, economic and political life of the Vedic Age Aryans. Dharma Shastras: These are a very important source of information about the laws and judicial procedures of the Aryans. Manu Smriti is the most important of the Dharma Shastras.

Write a short essay on: “Vedic rituals” [1997, 20m]

Rig Veda reflects the beliefs and practices of a religious aristocracy and its patrons. The Rig Veda indicates a diversity of religious practices. The Vedic hymns divide the universe into the sky (dyu), earth (prthivi) and the middle realm (antariksha).

Deities were worshipped through prayer and sacrificial rituals (yajnas). The sacrifice marked a movement from the everyday, mundane sphere of activity and experience to the sacred sphere. The gods are presented as powerful, mostly benevolent beings, who could be made to intervene in the world of men via the performance of sacrifices. 

• Some sacrifices were simple, others required the participations of rituals specialists. The god Prajapati, who is closely identified with sacrifice, is the most important deities in the Brahmana texts. 

A number of complex sacrificial rituals were associated with kingship: Vajapeya (establish supremacy over mother earth) - (chariot race, homage to mother earth) Ashvamedha (establish supremacy over other people) - (horse set free to roam abroad; after successful passing the steed was sacrificed) Rajasuya (establish superiority over neighbours) - (offerings to divinities, abhisheka, game of dice)

Other important Vedic rituals: Garbhadhana: A ceremony to promote conception in women. Jatkarma: A birth ceremony performed before the cutting of the umbilical cord. Upanayana: An initiation ceremony to status to boys of the higher varnas in their eighth year.

Examine the view that sacrifice was a ritual and a form of social exchange in Vedic India. [2010, 30m]

A ritual in Vedic India

A form of social exchange in Vedic India

Sacrifices took place in the house of the yajmana or on a specially prepared plot of land nearby. They consisted mostly of oblations of milk, ghee and grain poured into the fire accompanied by the recitation of appropriate sacrificial formulae. Some sacrifices were simple, domestic affairs, performed by the house holders, example Agnihotra. Others required the participations of rituals specialists. Seven types of sacrificial priests are mentioned in the Rig Veda – each with his particular tasks clearly laid down. Soma was a ritual drink mentioned in Rig Veda which was used during sacrificial ritual. In later Vedic times, sacrifices had become longer, more elaborate and expensive. The sacrifice was presented as the act that created the world and the current performance of the sacrifice was seen as necessary to regulate life and the word.

The priests were given dakshina (fee) in return for the important duties they performed. The role of the priest became larger and larger as the sacrifices became longer and more complicated. Small oblations were restricted to the domestic sacrifice, but from time to time larger sacrifices were organized for which the clan brought substantial prestations. The public sacrifice was a solemn occasion, but it also released energies through the general conviviality (आमोद-प्रियता) that followed at its conclusion. The giving of gifts was believed to ensure a return of gifts in even greater amount. Sacrificial rites tended to increase power of the priest. Wealth of a raja was collected and displayed via the rituals - established the status and power of the yajamana. The raja’s gifts to the priests enriched and empowered the Brahmans. The sacrifice prevented the raja from accumulating wealth to the point where his status would be based on economic power rather than ritual sanction.

“Archaeology knows of no Aryans; only literature knows of Aryans.” Examine critically. [2015, 10m]

The composers of the Rig Veda described themselves as Arya. The Vedic literature talks about the political life, the social life, the economic life and the religious life of the Aryans. The texts also deal in details about the gods and goddesses of the Aryans and the assemblies like sabha and samiti. It also mentions cattle rearing, agricultural activity, crafts like cart making, carpentry, metal working etc as their main occupations.

There are also references in the Rig veda to various kind of forts, attacks on walled cities, and the epithet Purandara (destroyer of forts) given to the god Indra but the archaeological records do not point towards any such wars and destruction.

But there do exist archaeological evidences which point towards settlement of the people in the north-west and north India during the Vedic age:

1. The family books of the Rig Veda samhita refers to the land of sapta-sindhu or the seven rivers that is the Indus, its five tributaries, and the saraswati(Ghaggar-Hakra) which still exist except the saraswati which disappeared.
2. The Painted grey ware has a very extensive distribution, stretching from Himalayan foothills to the Malwa plateau in central India, and from the Bahawalpur region of Pakistan to Kaushambi near Allahabad in Uttar Pradesh. However, the main distribution of the sites are in the Indo-Gangetic divide, Sutlej basin and upper Ganga plains.
3. The important evidence for the PGW material culture is available from excavated sites such as Hastinapur, Alamgirpur, Ahichchtra, Allahpur, Mathura, Kampil etc. The structural remains at the sites consist of wattle and daub and mud huts, baked and unbaked bricks, artefacts of stone, bone and terracotta.A fire altar has also been found at Jakhera.
4. The iron objects have also been found and evidence of cultivation of rice, wheat and barley is also available. Bones of cattle, sheep and pigs have been discovered. Horse bones have been found at Hastinapur.

Based on the above mentioned archaeological evidences it would be incorrect to say that “Archaeology knows of no Aryans”.

Discuss the political pattern and the major religious ideas and rituals of the Vedic age. [1980, 60m]

During the early Vedic period the seeds of regular system of administration were sown. What certain officials the the king had?

Mahishi (Chief queen),

Suta (Record-keeper of the king),

Bhagadudha (Chief Revenue Collector),

Akshavapa (Chief Accountant),

Kaata (Lord of the Imperial Household),

Sangrahita (the Exchequer),

Govikruta (Chief of forests) and Palagala.

The Purohit was the Chief Adviser and temporal guru (spiritual teacher) of the king.

The Senani was the military Commander while the Gramina was the village officer. The importance of these two officials is evident from the fact that the king had to take oath in the presence of these officials.

The Aryan Chromosome. Where did the Aryans come to India from? When did they migrate? Genetics is now beginning to affirm archaeological and literary evidence.

Examine the contribution of Vedic culture in the sphere of social institutions and religion. Was there any continuity between the Indus and the Vedic cultures in this respect? [1983, 60m]

Compare the economic, social and religious life of the Indus Valley (Harappan) people with that of the early Vedic people and discuss the relative chronology of the Indus and the early Vedic cultures. [1987, 60m]

Discuss briefly the development of religious ideas and rituals in the Vedic age. Do they show any parallelism with the religion of the Indus Civilization? [1989, 60m]

Analyse the differences and similarities between Indus Valley and Vedic Cultures. [1992, 60m]

Evaluate  various  views  regarding  human  settlements  as  gleaned  from  the  Vedic sources. [2013, 15m]

Write a short essay on: “Position of women in the Rig Vedic society” [1988, 20m] 

Write a short essay on: “The formulation of social system in the later Vedic period.” [1990, 20m]

Bring out the elements of change and continuity between the Early Vedic and Later Vedic Cultures. [1993, 60m]

Give a brief account of the social and economic conditions of the Later Vedic Aryans. [1998, 60m]

Describe the social life of the later Vedic people. How was it different from the Rig Vedic life? [2004, 60m]

Write a short essay on: “Democratic elements in the political system of the early Vedic period.” [1986, 20m]

   <try to answer the questions above by self and put your answers in comment section for me to review>