Syllabus:
The Ahom Kingdom; Evolution of the Sikh community and the Khalsa Panth; Shivaji and the early Maratha Kingdom; Maratha ascendancy under the Peshwas
The 18th Century - State of politics, culture and economy on the eve of the British conquest
The regional principalities: Nizam’s Deccan, Bengal, Awadh; Emergence of Afghan Power; Battle of Panipat: 1761
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KAMARUPA/ PRAGJYOTISHPUR [c. 900 - 1699]: Kamakhya Temple
Ahom - Write a short essay on: “The Ahom Kingdom” [2008, 20m]
The Ahom Kingdom (1228–1826, called Kingdom of Assam in medieval times) was a medieval kingdom in the Brahmaputra valley in Assam that maintained its sovereignty for nearly 600 years and successfully resisted Mughal expansion in North-East India. It was able to establish its suzerainty over the Brahmaputra valley and had a profound effect on the political and social life in the region.
The founder of the dynasty was Sukhapaa (1228-1262). Under him the Buranji [historical chronicle writing in Ahom] started. But it was during the reign of Sukhangpha that territorial expansion was done at the expense of neighbouring kingdom of Kamata. During the reign of Sudangpha in early fifteenth century, the influence of Brahmanical Hinduism began to gain ground in the Ahom society. The greatest Ahom king was Suhungmung who repelled the successive invasions of Sultans of Bengal. His reign is remarkable not only for rapid Hindus-isation of the Ahoms but also for the spread of a reformed Vaishnava doctrine associated with the name Sankaradeva.
The Ahom king did not join the mainstream of Indian history till the seventeenth century when it became the target of Mughal invasions.
Give a brief account of resistance offered by Ahom State against the Mughal rule. [2014, 10m]
While many do know about Shivaji and Rana Pratap, there was one ruling dynasty that gave nightmares to the Mughals, the Ahoms of Assam.
Ahoms allied with Koch Hajo who were at constant rivalry with the Koch Bihar kingdom. The main cause for the hostilities between the Ahoms and Mughals, was the latter's alliance Koch Bihar.
Assam's rich natural resources, the prosperity of the Kamrup kingdom, availability of elephants and aromatic plants, attracted the Mughals who wished to conquer it.
Aurangzeb time a massive force was sent under the command of Raja Ram Singh I of Amber, Raja Jai Singh I of Jaipur, and Rashid Khan the ex Faujdar of Gauhati. However in one of their most spectacular defeats ever, the mighty Mughal Army was routed at the Battle of Saraighat, headed by the great Ahom General, Lachit Barpukhan.
The Battle of Itakhuli in 1682, was the last major conflict, which ended in a decisive victory for the Ahoms. Aurangzeb was preoccupied in the Deccan with the Marathas, while the Bengal subedar had to deal with the East India Company. It was virtually a no contest, and the Mughal Army was totally routed by the Ahoms.
Unique system of tribal polity and the paik system. In paik system every individual was a paik and served alternatively. Hence they could match the superior resources of mughals by knowing the terrain better and utilising every resource.
SIKHS
Write a short essay on: “Evolution of the Khalsa Panth” Comment. [2008, 20m]
Sikh movement had its origin in the preaching of Nanak. Its development is closely linked with the institution of Guru ship.
Akbar had good relation with the Gurus who succeeded Nanak, but Guru Arjun Dev came into conflict with Jahangir. There was conflict between Guru Hargovind and imperial forces during the reign of Shah Jahan. He started recruiting a military following.
Mughal emperors were conscious of the growing importance of Sikh Gurus. Aurangzeb once summoned Guru Har Rai to explain his conduct. Next guru Teg bahadur was arrested and beheaded at Delhi.
The martyrdom of Guru Teg Bahadur paved the way for the final transformation of Sikhism into an armed opposition movement. A major role in this was played by Guru Govind Singh. Guru collected a small army. In 1699,Guru founded the military brotherhood of Khalsa at Anandpur.
The initiation into the Khalsa through a double edged sword, the willingness to give their lives for the sake of the Guru, wearing of Keshas and arms, removal of all those masands whose integrity or loyalty was questionable, vesting of Guru ship either in Khalsa panth or adi Grantha, rejection of some old customs and some new ones were adopted.
In the wake of creation of Khalsa, a number of Misls arose which waged a struggle for Independence and ultimately paved the way for the rise of a strong Sikh empire under Ranjit Singh.
Marathas
Was Shivaji a nationalist leader? [1985m 20m]
Was Maratha movement nationalist in character?
Emphasised on basis of Shivaji's struggle against Mughals - cannot be accepted because Mughals were not foreigners when Shivaji fought against them. They had lived for more than 100 years.
Shivaji was inspired by vision of pan-India empire - no elements visible - fighting to create a Maratha Kingdom; not for liberation from different rulers.
Throughout the world, spirit of nationalism has been a middle class phenomenon - but in Maratha land middle class was very small; mostly low caste. Nationalist awakening was nowhere visible in middle of 17th C.
It can be called Maratha Nationalism.
Was Maratha movement a Hindu movement or Shivaji a Hindu leader?
Emphasised on basis of title adopted by Shivaji ~Hindutvadharmadharaka & Gau brahman pratipalaka - but these are common title of age and adopted by Rajput rulers as well.
Influence of ideas of Guru Ramdas on his thinking - but came into contact only in later phase of life.
Fight against Aurangzeb - not religious but political - to preserve Maratha independence.
Shivaji's naval commander was a Muslim, a Pathan unit in army, no discrimination between H&M.
Joined hands with Muslims ruler of Vijapur and Golkonda against Hindu Nayakas of Karnataka.
Shivaji was a secular ruler and Maratha movement a secular one.
Was Maratha movement a reaction of Aurangzeb's policies?
1st phase of fight was witnessed during Jahangir and Shahjahan.
Shahaji Bhosale, Maratha commander gathered admin and military experience under Deccani states - Ahmadnagar and Bijapur.
1st major victory of Shivaji was registered in 1646 (hill fort Torana from Bijapur).
By the time Aurangzeb emerged as emperor in 1658, Marathas were already a dominant force.
High handed behavior of Aurangzeb intensified process of rise of Marathas - especially insult of Shivaji in 1666.
Account for the rise of the Marathas as a political power. How did they influence the course of history? [1986, 60m]
Shivaji’s rise to power cannot be treated as an isolated phenomenon in Maratha history. It was as much the result of his personal daring and heroism as of the peculiar geographical situation of the Deccan country and the unifying religious influences that were animating the people with new hopes and aspirations in the 15th and 16th centuries. Explain. [1996, 60m]
Write a short essay on: “Meaning and features of the Maharashtra Dharma.” [1994, 20m]
Give social background to the rise of the Maratha movement during the seventeenth century. [2012, 10m]
Trace the development of Maratha power under Shivaji. [1980, 60m]
Role of Geographical conditions:
Maratha region was geographically isolated => distinct Maratha culture = strong binding force => political identity.
Historically independent and so when Aurangzeb tried to breach => Maratha movement.
Resource deficient = struggle hard to make living => made them tougher and stronger = helped in struggle against Mughals.
Economically under developed ~ same condition of all Maratha Sardars - uniformity united them against Mughals.
Hilly terrain of Maratha land = suitable for Guerrilla form of warfare => successfully challenge mighty Mughals.
Ideas and teachings of Maharashtra Dharma:
Refers to branch of BM that flourished in Maratha region, propagated by Eknath, Namdev, Tukaram and Ramdas
Liberal, egalitarian, Progressive and Reformative.
Raised voice against evil prevailing in Maratha society.
Sense of cultural pride, sense of sacrifice for motherland => common masses saw selves as one unit => aspire for political identity. Rise of Shivaji was reflections of these aspirations only.
Role of Deccani State:
Early commanders such as Shahaji Bhosale employed by Ahmadnagar and Bijapur - gained military and admin experience = later used in f. of Maratha kingdom.
Deccani states kept check on Marathas. Annexation of Ahmadnagar by Shahjahan in 1636 provided initial space to Maratha to spread wings. Later Bijapur and Golkonda were annexed by Aurangzeb.
Later Bijapur and Golkonda secretly supported Marathas against Mughals so that Aurangzeb could remain busy with Marathas => facilitated rise of Marathas as political force.
Leadership of Shivaji.
Raised a powerful army by mobilising the ordinary Marathas = made dream realistic.
f. of Maratha State or Swarajya, Maratha flag, Maratha identity => a concrete idea to fight.
Sound administrative system, efficient fiscal system => fight for many decades against the Mughals
Influence the course of History - After a long time a native power emerged with potential to carve out pan India empire.
Maratha fiscal and financial system
How did Shivaji organize his administration and finances to consolidate his power? [2010, 30m]
Write a short essay on: “Chauth and Sardeshmukhi” [2003, 20m]
Write a short essay on: “The system of the collection of Chauth and Sardeshmukhi by the Maratha rulers.” [2004, 20m]
Write a short answer on: “Chauth and Sardeshmukhi of the Maratha rulers.” [2007, 20m]
Chauth
25% on revenue or produce - it was not a revenue but a tax or tribute. Military contribution levied by a strong power on the weak.
Share of Maratha King in Chauth was 1/3rd (3% to King for charity, 75% goes to local commander, 16% to king, 6% to sponsoring department. Rest remained with Maratha chiefs.
Sardeshmukhi [NOT a LR]
Additional levy of 10% on those lands which the Marathas claimed hereditary rights as Deshmukh. [MUGHLAI]. Total amount went to the King’s treasury.
History of Collection by Marathas
Both Chauth and Sardeshmukhi rights were claimed by Shivaji first in 1650 when he requested the Mughal Emperor to accept his rights on certain lands which however was not accepted. Shivaji on his own made Bijapur and Golkonda (1668), Khandesh (1671); Portuguese possessions in Konkan (1674); Carnatic (1676); some other Mughal provinces of Deccan (1680) pay.
Peshwa Baji Rao started creating powerful Maratha nobility of his own by lavishly granting them territories outside the Swarajya territory with the right to collect Chauth and Sardeshmukhi (& appropriate 2/3rd)
In 1719, the Mughal emperor granted Shahu these rights over 6 Deccan provinces for maintaining 15,000 troops for the emperor.
Role of Chauth and Sardeshmukhi-
Helped them expand their beyond the swarajya territories of Shivaji. [POLITICAL EXPANSION]
Some historians claim that in the time of the Peshwas, Chauth and Sardeshmukhi helped the growth of feudalism, which Shivaji wanted to put an end to. The chiefs who raised men and money for realising the claims of Chauth and Sardeshmukhi in distant land on their own, could neither be expected to obey the royal orders nor render accounts of money they raised and spent.
Chauth has been interpreted differently by various historians:
Payment in lieu of protection [GJ, OD, BEN, HYD] provided by Maratha against the foreign invasion - Ranade
~Subsidary Alliance System (Lord Wellesley) - the control of the British over the other party was far more complete and extracting than under the Maratha system (who could not pursue it to its logical end and give protection to those states).
Tribute extracted by Maratha from hostile or conquered territories - Sardesai.
Buying protection against Maratha attack and did not impose on Maratha any corresponding obligation to guard the territory from foreign invasion or internal disorder. So, it was like a blackmail. - Sir J.N. Sarkar
Review the efforts made by Shivaji in consolidating his power in the Deccan in the seventeenth century. [1982, 60m] <Role of Marathas fight in Deccan and imposing Chauth and Sardeshmukhi>
Shivaji was a great organizer and builder of civil institutions, examine this statement in the light of the difficulties of administration and the extent of success achieved by him. [1992, 60m]
Write a short answer on: “Structure and role of the Maratha Confederacy.” [1987, 20m]
The peshwa, also known as the mukhya pradhan, originally headed the advisory council of the raja Shivaji (reigned c. 1659–80). After Shivaji death, the council broke up and the office lost its primacy, but it was revived when Shivaji grandson Shāhū appointed Bālājī Visvanāth Bhat, a Chitpavan Brahman, as peshwa in 1714. Bālājī's son Bājī Rāo I secured the hereditary succession to the peshwa-ship.
How far did Peshwa Bajirao I succeed in establishing Maratha supremacy in the Deccan and political hegemony in the North? [1983, 60m]
One of the greatest warriors in the history of India, Bajirao I (August 18, 1700 - April 28, 1740) was a noted general who served as Peshwa (Prime Minister) to the fourth Maratha Chhatrapati (king) Shahu from 1720 until his death. Regarded as the most influential of the nine Peshwas from the Bhat family, Bajirao I changed the map of India in the mid-eighteenth century.
During his 20 years of military course, Peshwa Bajirao I was never beaten in a battle and always rejoiced victory.
Malwa (1723), Dhar (1724), Aurangabad (1724), Battle of Palkhed (1728), Firozabad (1737), Delhi (1737), Bhopal (1738) and Battle of Vasai (1739) were some of the major battles won by Bajirao
The effective control of the peshwas ended with the great defeat of Pānīpat (1761) at the hands of the Afghans and the death of the young peshwa Mādhav Rāo I in 1772. Thereafter the Marāṭhā state was a confederacy of five chiefs under the nominal leadership of the peshwa at Poona (Pune) in western India. Though they united on occasion, as against the British (1775–82), more often they quarreled.
Succession disputes from 1772 weakened the Peshwa's authority. Defeat by Holkars—the Maratha rulers of Indore—led Bājī Rāo II to seek British protection by the Treaty of Bassein (1802). Bājī Rāo was deposed after attacking the British in 1818; he died in 1853.
An Empire Failed?
After the death of Aurangzeb, the Maratha expanded their state into a vast empire. Since Peshwa Balaji Vishwanath’s period, the Maratha started expanding and gradually the whole Deccan and many parts of Northern India passed under Maratha control.
Why did the Marathas fail in establishing a lasting empire in India? [1981, 20m]
Were the Marathas restricted by their geopolitical limitations from becoming the paramount power of India? [2001, 60m]
Role of Geography
Resource deficient - major part in rain shadow zone => extract Chauth from neighbours using military strength => could not develop close relationship with other Indian rulers.
When they had to move in Northern plains - Guerrilla warfare could not help.
Scarcity of resources did not allow to raise a powerful army => affected consolidation.
Weak successors of Shivaji (Shivaji led Marathas by his examples and qualities) as well as later Peshwas.
Weakening in the political system of the Marathas
Office of Peshwa became very powerful, after 1713, and Maratha king got eclipsed. Rise of Peshwa inspired other Maratha commanders such as Scindia, Holkar, Gaikwad and Bhonsale. Many times plundered money was not sent to Satara (King).
The selfishness and ambitiousness of Maratha chiefs led to the formation of Maratha confederacy => no longer effective and cohesive. The unity ended after the defeat in the 3rd BoP.
Till the time Nana Fadnavis, differences were kept in check but with his death in 1800 wisdom departed from Maratha Land.
Internal differences / Mutual distrust in the Maratha confederacy
Internal fighting => weakening of Maratha Empire => could not face Britisher's - 1st Anglo-Maratha war (>7 years).
Failure to understand nature of English Company
English were present in India since 1608. Till the time Marathas did not allow English to interfere in their internal matter, company could do no harm to Marathas. But when Raghunath Rao and Baji 2nd's ambitions got them blinded - fate doomed on Marathas.
Raghunath Rao murdered Peshwa Narayan Rao to sit on throne in 1773.
Conspiracy hatched by Peshwa Baji Rao 2nd triggered a series of unending conflict which ultimately pushed Marathas into second war with English Company. Defeat in war destroyed Maratha power.
Lack of good diplomacy by Marathas
Maratha did not realise that their real enemy was British and they cooperated with British against Tipu Sultan which strengthened the British. The British with their [master] diplomacy kept the Marathas divided.
Lack of strong finances
The taxation system was disorganised and there was no sound economic policy. In new captured areas, instead of developing organised economic system, they depended on plundering and imposing Chauth and Sardeshmukhi.
Outdated method of warfare (Guerrilla)
Could not stand against the British who used latest technology and methodology.
Neglect of the Sea power
Like the Mughals and could not face European, particularly British in the Sea battle.
Role of British
After 1773, the British started participating in the internal disputes of the Marathas. There were four Anglo-Maratha Wars. This led to decline of Maratha power.
*Adoption of the narrow ideal of the Maratha rule
Shivaji had thought of establishing Hindu rule and he treated even the Muslims well. The idea of Hindu rule was substituted by that of the Maratha rule in the time of Peshwas and so they started ill-treating non-Muslims. They lost sympathies of the Rajputs and Jats as Marathas plundered them.
Write a short essay on: “Third Battle of Panipat” [1998, 20m]
Write a short essay on: “Consequences of the Third Battle of Panipat.” [2002, 20m]
Disaster of Panipat - factor that doomed Maratha Empire
Fought in 1761 between Maratha forces led by Sadasiv Rao Bhau and the Afghan Ahmad Shah Abdali.
More than 50000 Maratha soldiers lost their life - wiped out almost entire young generation of Maratha commanders.
Prior to 1761, the Maratha fame spread so much that even the Mughal Emperor was under their influence.
Defeat in battle of Panipat damaged Maratha’s prestige, exposed their hollowness and they lost many good Maratha leaders in the battle.
Maratha military power could be restored within a short period of <10 years by new Peshwa Madhav Rao but the lost prestige could not be recovered.
BoP did not decide who will be ruling over India but it decided who would not be ruling over India.
When Marathas were losing in BoP, English was consolidating itself in Bengal. The English control over the resources of Bengal sealed the fate of whole Indian because a power enjoying control over Bengal and naval supremacy could achieve any challenge successfully.
Examine the influence of Shivaji on various aspects of culture of Maharashtra.
Examine circumstances leading to rise of Shivaji. Throw light on his legacy. [1999, 60m]
Chhatrapati Shivaji, a brave Maratha warrior, is recognised as the hero in India and more specifically in Maharashtra because of rise of Maratha state during his time.
In India, every historical hero became the part of its culture and has influence on its culture in the form of folklore, poetry, drama, painting, heritage and architecture and so happens with Chhatrapati Shivaji in the following manner:
His contribution in the culture remain in continuum. Wide use of Marathi language, povada dance which he patronised.
Festivals: He became symbolic figure to arouse masses by organising festivals on his name and his Jayanti.
Heritage and architecture: Various artefacts were raised in the form of statues depicting his bravery across India and most recent one is his statue in Indian Ocean. Some of the iconic buildings, educational institutions, transportation terminals such as Chhatrapati Shivaji terminus and Mumbai airport is named after him.
Visual arts: various dramas, folklore poetry were written on his life and are recited in the interiors of Maharashtra today. Along with it various paintings, cinematography and TV serials were produced i.e. Veer Shivaji.
Literature: He became prominent figure in Marathi and Hindi literature and several books were written i.e. Shiva Chhatrapati.
It is his iconic personality which still remain in the hearts of individuals and has influence over social life and will remain alive for centuries in the form of culture. Therefore, it won’t be wrong to resemble Shivaji as the culture of Maharashtra and vice versa.
How would you like to characterize the eighteenth century in Indian history? [2005, 60m]
What are the distinguishing components of the debate on “The Eighteenth Century”? [2008, 60m]
It was not an age of darkness but it was the age of quite high level of progress and prosperity.
An age of continuity as most of fundamental and institutional practices had continued throughout 18th century.
A phase of transition in Indian History.
While previously the contest for power had been between royal princes and the nobles had merely aided aspirants to throne, new ambitious nobles became direct contenders for power and used princes as mere pawns to capture the seats of authority. The administration was virtually in the hands of Zulfikar Khan, Daud Khan, Saiyad brothers, Nizam-ul-mulk and others.
Muhammad Shah's long reign of nearly 30 years (1719-48) was the last chance of saving the empire. But he was not the man of the moment. He was weak-minded and frivolous and over fond of a life of ease and luxury. He neglected the affairs of the state.
Hereditary Nawabs owing nominal allegiance to the Emperor of Delhi arose in many parts of country, for example, in Bengal, Hyderabad, Awadh and the Punjab. Everywhere petty Zamindars, Rajas and Nawabs raised the banner of rebellion and independence.
The Maratha Sardars began their northern expansion and overran Malwa, Gujarat and Bundelkhand. The invasions of Nadir Shah (1738) and Ahmed Shah Abdali inflicted immense damage of the Mughal empire. This shrank to a few square miles around Delhi. In the end, in 1803 Delhi itself was occupied by the British army.
The Europeans knocking at the gates of India had the benefit of coming from societies which had evolved superior economic system and which were more advanced in S&T. Finally the British emerged successful and took advantages of internal conflicts of Indian powers. Crushed fleets during Anglo-French wars and prepared a ground. In the second half of 18th century they fought many battles - Battle of Plassey, Buxor etc and played the games of diplomacy, conspiracy and treties against Nizam, Mysore, Awadh, Hyderabad, Carnatic and Marathas.
India failed to make social, economic and cultural progress and was a land full of contrasts. Extreme poverty existed side by side with extreme riches and luxury. Constant warfare and disruption of law and order in many areas harmed the country's internal trade. Every petty ruler tried to impose heavy customs duties. While sea trade expanded, overland trade route through Afghanistan and Persia was disrupted. Even so India remained a land of extensive manufactures. Indian artists still enjoyed fame all the world over for their skill.
Centres of higher education were spread all over country and usually financed by Nawabs, Rajas and rich Zamindars. Among the Hindus, higher learning was based on Sanskrit learning and mostly confined to Brahmins. Persian education being based on the official language of time was equally popular among H&M. Elementary education was quite widespread - imparted through town and village schools (H) and Moulvis in Maktabs in Mosques (M). Teachers enjoyed high prestige in community. But girls were seldom given education.
Many of the painters of Mughal school migrated to provincial courts and flourished at Hyderabad, Lucknow, Kashmir and Patna. The paintings of Kangra, Rajputana Schools revealed new vitality and taste. Imambara of Lucknow reveals proficiency in technique. City of Jaipur and its buildings are an example of continuing vigour.
Music continued, flourished in North, South - significant progress under Mohammad Shah. In literary life, spread of Urdu language noteworthy. There was revival of Malayalam literature. Kerala also witnessed full development of Kathakali literature, drama, painting and dance. In Assam, literature developed under patronage of Ahom kings. Heer Ranjha in Punjabi was composed at his time by Warris Shah. Gujarati and Sindhi languages were in full swing.
Social life was marked by stagnation and dependence in the past. Caste was central feature of social life of Hindus. Purdah was common mostly among higher classes in North, not practised in South. Custom of early marriage prevailed all over the country. Evils of dowry, sati etc were widespread in Bengal, Rajputana. Raja Sawai Jai Singh of Amber and Maratha general Prashuram Bhau tried to promote widow remarriage but failed. Muslims were no less divided by considerations of caste, race, tribe and status. The Shia and Sunni nobles were sometimes at loggerheads.
Nadir Shah’s invasion and the conquest of Delhi in 1739 resulted in the migration of Mughal artists to the hills to escape the uncertainties of the plains. Here they found ready patrons which led to the founding of the Kangra school of painting. By the mid-eighteenth century the Kangra artists developed a style which breathed a new spirit into miniature painting. The source of inspiration was the Vaishnavite traditions.
What is distinct about the Kangra Paintings? Soft colours including cool blues and greens, and a lyrical treatment of themes.
Contribution of Deccan - In the Deccan, painting continued to develop independently of the Mughal style in the beginning. However, later in the 17th and 18th centuries it was increasingly influenced by the Mughal style. Later it made a significant contribution to the development of the Mughal style in North India. Early centres of painting in the Deccan, during the 16th and 17th centuries were Ahmednagar, Bijapur and Golconda.
Painting in Hyderabad started with the foundation of the Asaf jahi dynasty by Mir Qamruddin Khan Nizamul-Mulk in 1724 A.D. Influence of the Mughal style of painting on the already existing early styles of Deccani paintings, introduced by several Mughal painters who migrated to the Deccan during the period of Aurangzeb and sought patronage there, was responsible for the development of various styles of painting in the Deccan at Hyderabad and other centres.
Discuss the causes of the rise and growth of regional kingdoms with special reference to Deccan in the 18th century. [2011, 30m]
Emergence of regional powers
By 1761 Mughal Empire was empire only in name yet the new states did not directly challenge his authority. In fact they sought sanction to legitimise their rule. The emergence of new institutions can best be described as decentralisation of power rather than political vacuum.
Hyderabad, Awadh and Bengal were successor states who were founded by Mughal provincial governors.
Murshid Quli Khan was last governor of Bengal appointed by Mughal emperor. The foundation of Murshid Quli Khan’s power was his successful revenue administration. The collection system was efficient and he encouraged the development of very powerful Zamindars.
The political stability and increase in agricultural productivity during Murshid Quli’s period further impetus to trading activities. The importance of merchants and bankers grew more and more.
In 17th century silk, cotton, sugar, clarified butter went to Persia and Afghanistan from here over land route. In fact when there was political turmoil in 18th century the traffic through overland route declined but through Oceanic route thrived with increasing investments from Dutch, French and English. Europe became the major destination of goods from Bengal. Bengal had favourable balance of trade.
Hindu Merchant Umi Chand or Armenian tycoon Khoja Wajid who controlled fleet of ships were magnates. They had cordial relations with state bureaucracy. In fact the constant pressure by Zamindars to pay revenue on time and its regular remittance to imperial treasury in Delhi brought powerful financiers and bankers into great demand. Bankers provided security at each stage of transaction and one, Jagat seth eventually became, treasurer of the provincial government.
Murshid Quli named his daughter’s son Sarfaraz Khan his successor. Later Alivardi Khan, commander of army rose with the help of Jagat Seth, and a few powerful Zamindars. The major problems for Alivardi Khan came from outside in form of Marathas and Afghan rebellion. The Marathas in their desire for pan-India Empire constantly raided Bengal. Ultimately in 1751, Alivardi Khan agreed to pay Chauth (one-fourth of revenue) and handing over of Orissa. Alivardi died in 1756 nominating his grandson Siraj-ud-daula as successor. But a succession got challenged by two other contenders: Fauzdar of Purnea, and Alivardi’s daughter. The court factionalism destabilised the administration of Bengal and the advantage was taken by English East India Company.
Kingdom of Hyderabad was found by Chin Qulich Khan under the title of Nizam-ul-mulk Asaf Jahi in 1724 defeating Mubariz Khan, Mughal governor or Deccan. Known as leader of Turani party, he organised Turani and Irani noblemen against Sayyid brothers that led the Indian Muslim faction who had Farruksiyar killed. Asaf Jahi shifted actually to Hyderabad in 1740 to settle permanently.
He subdued refractory Zamindars and showed tolerance towards the Hindus who had economic power in their hands and a regional elite section emerged which supported Nizam. Maratha depredations were the cause of anxiety along with the war of succession between son Nasir Jung and grandson Muzaffar Jung the advantage of which was taken by French under Dupleix.
Muzaffar came victorious and gave monetary rewards and territorial concessions to French. But the problem had not ended as in some years, Marathas, Mysore, Carnatic all settle scores against Hyderabad. Nizam Ali Khan who ruled from 1762 to 1803 would settle border disputes and bring political stability. Instead of destroying the indigenous power structures, they were allowed to govern inherited territories in turn of annual peshkash to Nizam. A ‘patron-client relationship’ was formed.
Land revenue was collected through revenue farmers but very little attempt was made to keep them under control, jagirs became hereditary, while old nobles existed new and young people with expertise rose from lower ranks. On the whole, ‘power remain largely diffused’ and by 18th century Hyderabad represented a relatively new political system with participants of diverse origins and social backgrounds.
Saadat Khan was appointed governor of Awadh in 1722. He reformed the Jagirdari system and granted jagirs to local gentry and a rich flow of trade kept the province affluent. Result was creation of regional ruling elite which became Saadat’s main support base. However, he was not given the post of mir bakshi (imperial treasurer) despite his services during invasion of Persian King Nadir Shah. He changed sides but the arrogance of Nadir Shah made Saadat commit suicide. Nadir Shah remained emperor of India for just two months and settled the succession question of Awadh by accepting 20million rupees Peshkash from Safdar Jung (Son of Saadat Khan).
Safdar JungàShuja-ud-Daula. Shuja was a much sought after ally for both parties when Afghan leader Ahmed Shah Abdali arrived again in India to engage Marathas in Third battle of Panipat (1761). Shuja joined Abdali to see his opponents Marathas humbled and weakened. His power remain unchallenged till his encounter with English in 1764.
Other states of 18th century were Marathas, Sikhs, Jats, and Afghan kingdoms of Farukhabad and Rohillakhand. The only one among them with potential to develop into pan-India empire was Marathas but it could not, its inherent weakness being Maratha Polity itself.
After Shivaji’s death in 1680, dynastic factionalism and constant pressure from Mughals Policy of Conquest troubled the Marathas. Local Deshmukhs (revenue officers) and Zamindars sometimes aligned with Mughal and on other times with Marathas (here also civil war between the forces of Shahu [Sivaji’s grandon] and Tarabai [Shivaji’s daughter in law]).
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