Syllabus:
Major political developments in Northern India and the Peninsula - The Ghurian invasions – factors behind Ghurian success - Economic, social and cultural consequences; Foundation of Delhi Sultanate and early Turkish Sultans
Alberuni’s India - Brahman and the new social order; Condition of women; “Indian Feudalism” - Agrarian economy and urban settlements;
Origin and the rise of Rajputs, Trade and commerce; Indian science and technology
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“Of all the events that had a singular being on the history of India, Harsha’s death in 647 A.D. is significant.” Why? Explain. [1996, 60m]
Evaluate the socio economic conditions from the Gupta Period to 1200 C.E. as gleaned from the various types of grants or dana shasana. [2011, 60m]
Critically analyse the agricultural economy from 750 to 1200 CE. [2014, 10m]
What were the privileges granted to the donees in land-grant charters of early India? How far were these charters responsible for integration or disintegration socio-political milieu? [2014, 20m]
Do the evidences of land ownership at our disposal support the theory of the prevalence of feudalism in early medieval India? [2015, 15m]
Give an account of “Land charters of north India (c. A-D. 750-1200).” Comment. [1995, 20m]
In the contested space of IH, debates on early medieval India are among the most difficult to negotiate. The issue of land charters is central to these debates.
The earliest inscriptions recording land grants were issued under Satavahanas but the practice truly grew in scope during 750-1200AD. Ruling dynasties across the subcontinent were engaged in making such grants.
Land grants were usually engraved on hammered sheets of copper - described as 'TAMRAPATTA' or 'TAMRASHASNA'.
Early period grants to Brahmanas and Temples. Villages granted to Brahmanas were called AGRAHARAS or Brahmadeya. Some made also to Buddhist and J monasteries, etc.
Later secular land grants made to different officials became popular.
Inscriptions recorded - name of recipients, donors, circumstances and reasons.
King might have sincerely desired to bring uncultivable land under cultivation or through these land charters he might have planned to exercise his power into far flung areas where royal authority was little felt.
Worth noting that land grants were more in areas where circulation of coin was either minimal or absent. However, it can't be said with certainty that secular land grants were made on account of absence of coinage.
Land Grants impacted the social milieu. Strengthened the position of Brahmanas and their control over land, resources and over people.
The system of land grants is often connected by the Marxist historians to 'Indian Feudalism' debate.
Write a short essay on: “Applicability of the term ‘Indian Feudalism’ to early Medieval Society.” [2009, 20m]
Indian Feudalism emerged as a separate school in 1970s and its proponents were DD Kosambi and RS Sharma. They have argued that feudal formation took place in two ways. One through, 'feudalism from above' in which there was direct relationship between the overlord and his vassal whereas in 'feudalism from below' various powerful intermediaries crept between the overlord and vassal.
RS Sharma earlier proposed that decline of foreign trade was the main cause behind the land grants. But he later revised his theory as Marxism believes that change in society comes from within. So later, he argued that decline in urbanisation led to decline in trade, collapse of artisan activity, disappearance of metallic money which led to the practice of land grants. Later RS Sharma argued that early medieval period saw, Kali Age crisis as people started questioning the superiority of Brahmanas. To overcome this rulers started granting lands to Brahmanas to restore order in the society.
Many historians criticized the feudalism model. Harbans Mukhia argued that it would be incorrect to compare the system of land grants in Early M India to European feudalism model because there were differences between the two, for instance, climate conditions were different, Indian soil was more fertile, Indian peasants were not provided with tools and equipment by their overlords.
To what extent ‘monetary anaemia’ afflicted the erstwhile commercial economy during the early medieval period? [2010, 30m]
Similarly, BD Chattopadhyaya argued that in 4th -5th Centuries there was expansion of trade, development of new cities, increase in metallic coins etc. So it is not possible that suddenly afterwards situation completely changed.
Decline in foreign trade may not necessarily imply a decline in internal trade or petty commodity production, and the same applies to the urban centres.
John S Deyell argues that it was not the absence of precious metal but a clear excess of demand over supply. Opines that debasement of coinage [increase in volume of coin] did not reflect any financial crisis but was an alternative means to fulfil the increasing demand for coins in a condition of shortage of precious metals.
Thus, there are various interpretations in the context of land grants made in EM period. To have a better understanding of this period all the theories should be analysed critically based on the availability of historical evidences.
Write a short essay on: “Origins and meaning of the samanta system.” [1991, 20m]
Write a short essay on: “The Samanta System” [2006, 20m]
Discuss the factor's responsible for decline of urban centres in NI during 7th-9th C.
Combined effect of large #of factors - Social, Cultural, Political and Economic.
Economic: 2o, 3o decline. Around middle of 5th C, Ind. External trade decline due to Hunas, decline in Roman trade - sericulture started in Rome; Demands for Indian Arts and Crafts decreased -> people had to live Ahichchatra and Kaushambi -> go to villages for living; Regional Principalities emerged (Safety issues - Merchants).
Feudalism: -ve outlook towards 2o, 3o ; Agri glorified; Crossing sea, visiting faraway = polluting;
Factors responsible for emergence of Feudalism:
Role of Land Grants - emergence of large land owner, even given to junior officials and ordinary soldiers in times of resource crunch.
Role of Military Conquest - Local rulers who were subjugated earlier now rose on account of weak central authority - independent, autonomous feudal lords.
Role of Decline in Urban economy => economic significance of Agri increased => every one captured as much land as possible => feudal lords.
Decline of Urban C = NI phenomena; SI new centres, institutions emerge. Role of Nadu and Nagaram.
What kind of changes were visualized by historians on Indian feudalism? Examine critically. [2012, 30m]
Early Medieval Period was about decline in Urban centres - growth of Feudalism
RS Sharma - Absence of seals for commercial use by Guilds. Disappearance of fine pottery; Decline of major urban centres and towns in the Gupta and post-Gupta periods. Cites Hieun Tsang / inscriptions: lands, villages, towns and shops were given away not just to temples and monasteries but also to officials, military and administrative. Delegation of the responsibility for civic administration (tax collection) to the grantees - involve of merchants in management of the donated land - reduce their trading activities. These beneficiaries of grants could also compel artisans to produce articles not favoured by the latter. Eventually, these grants tended to restrict the economic operations of a town and gradually feudalize it.
Early Medieval India was about activity - a period of growth in Urban centres
R. Champakalakshmi - Urban change - a process, from agrarian expansion to urban growth, centred on the Brahmadeya and the temple institutions. Urbanism is seen by her not merely in terms of economy and demography but also as a function of Chola imperialism and Bhakti ideology.
Other proponents are BD Chattopadhyay and Deyell.
Feudalism itself is not appropriate:
Feudalism in Europe was more developed than India. Feudal lords were more powerful. There it was characterised by Manorial system - manor (fort and feudal lord) played important role in local life. It was marked by serfdom (Agri Slave). All Agri decision were taken by Feudal Lord who also retained whole of production. Relations were complimentary; Rights and obligations of Feudal Lords were clearly defined.
In Indian most of the Agri activities were carried out by tenant cultivators - Independent farmers. Feudal Lord received a part of total production, most of retained by cultivators. Relation between king and Feudal lords were hostile mostly because the King was always trying to subjugate Feudal Lords.
*Segmentary state model for South India - presents the kings of this age as ritual figures, devoid of the two important props of royal power - a revenue infrastructure and a standing army.
Monetisation of economy in EMP - whether coins completely absent and level of monetisation:
Monetisation no completely absent (700-900AD) - many coins - Ag from HARIKELA (Bangladesh), Kashmir Valley, SI.
Level of Monetisation quite high (900-1200AD) - commonly mention of Dinar, RUPAKA, DRAMMA, MASAKA in contemporary literature;
Kalachuri king Gangaideva (1019-1040) issued gold coins.
Gahadalva King Madanpal (1102-1111) issued Copper coins.
Chauhan rulers of Ajmer issued coins with image of Lakshmi and horse rider.
Write a short essay on: “AI- Biruni’s India” [1998, 20m]
Write a short essay on: “Alberuni on science in India” [2007, 20m]
Evaluate the ‘Kitab al-Hind’ of Alberuni as a source of history of India. [2014, 15m]
Attempt a critical essay of the Indian Science and Civilization in the light of Alberuni’s writings. What merits and drawbacks, do you find in his account? [2003, 60m]
One of the challenges of the period is to weave together, or at least juxtapose, the evidence from texts in Sanskrit, Persian and the vernacular languages with that from inscriptions, coins, and archaeology. ARCHAEOLOGICAL data of the early medieval period is extremely meagre, and this is a major drawback when it comes to framing and testing hypotheses related to settlement history.
Literary sources offer both direct as well as indirect information about Early Medieval - The Sanskrit literature of this period is characterised by pedantry, ornateness, and artificiality. | Kitab al-Hind of Alberuni as a source of history of India |
| ALBERUNI - Kitab-al-Hind - deep study of India Sciences Born in 973 in the territory of Khawariz, now called Khiva, in Central Asia. Alberuni’s book Tahkik-i-Hind (Reality of Hindustan or Hindus) gives a graphic description of India as he had seen it (8 Chapters).
To get a proper grip of the situation, he learned Sanskrit so that he might go to the sources of Hindu thought and religion. He learnt Sanskrit to acquire first-hand information. He read the religion texts and met the learned Indians. His approach was scientific and religious prejudices do not mar the quality of his observations. He quoted from the Bhagwat Gita, Vishnu Puran, Kapil’s Sankhya and the work of Patanjali. He gives wide info, of not just science but Indian civilization. An alternative source to about this period. He being a foreigner notes about festivals and customs which are left out by indigenous sources. |
How justified are we in characterising the Early Medieval Age as Dark Period of Indian History?
Colonial Historians = to justify Br Rule - Providential Mission; White Man's Burden. Periods like Post-Mauryan, Early Medieval were put as dark age. Caste, Women, Feudal, Moral decline, Insularity, Brahman superiority.
Dark age = period of all round decline and degeneration = no progress was visible; But no age can be dark age. Recent research => art and culture active; New politics rise - Palas, Pratiharas, Chauhans. Temples - Odisha, Chandella. Bhakti Trade active due to arrival of Arabs. Alberuni talks of science in India. Many famous books. In SI progress was remarkable. In fact this should be Golden Age.
Discuss the salient features of Indian society on the eve of the campaigns of Mahmud of Ghazni, with particular reference to the observations made by Al-Biruni. [1989, 60m]
Give an account of the Society in Northern and Central India since the death of Harsha to the Muslim conquest of North India. [1996, 60m]
At the time of advent of Muslim Rule in North/Western India, Nature of Early Medieval India:
Alberuni’s observation of Indian society can be studied under six major sub-heads: Caste-ridden Society, Closed Society, Stagnant Knowledge, Social evils, Religious Beliefs and Practices, Scientific Knowledge and Legal System.
Division of Society into Caste System | Deterioration of position of women | Emergence of Feudalism [Significance] | Religious and Moral Decline | Insular Character of Indian Society |
Smriti Writers exaggerated privileges of Brahmanas Antyajana – lower than Sudras (hunters, weavers, shoemakers) Still lower – Hadis, Doms, Chandalas. Kayastha caste – diffused castes (Brahmanas and Sudras); worked in royal estb. Complex and Divided society on eve of Turkish Invasion. | Smriti writers – give away girls between 6-8 years. Remarriage – NO. Either burn or remain widow. Child Marriage – YES Objects of Enjoyment. Regulated by male relations. Within family – honourable. Polygamy. Sati – higher castes. | Defn. Class of people – [SAMANTA / RAUTTA] – drew sustenance from land without working on it and held dominant positions in society. Military adventurous, local hereditary chiefs, tribal or clan leaders. Socially – parasitical exploiters of tenants. Politically – weakened position of ruler. Discouraged Trade and Commerce: promoted economic self-sufficiency within village. Destroyed village self-government. Hindu was not generally permitted to enter the land of the Turks = ‘Feudal localism’ =>ruled out other types of connection between one region of the country and another. | Shakti – popular in E India. Pala – patronised Buddhism and Jainism – in west, merchants; Sankracharya – tried to revive Hinduism; could not rid of evils; Different sects appear – Vamamarga Dharma – Kashmir, Bengal (wine, flesh, fish, women). Great Mathas degenerate – ignorance. Devadasi system degenerate – prostitution. Literature – obscene; Sculpture – erotic. Unfortunate that Alberuni visited India at a time when knowledge was at a low ebb - "I can only compare their mathematical and astronomical knowledge to a mixture of pearls and sour dates, Both kind of things are equal in their eyes since they cannot raise themselves to the method of a strictly scientific deduction.” | Upper caste – false sense of pride in superiority. Alberuni: Indians don’t desire to learn from others. Their complacency naturally prevented the Indians from rising above their fossilized, narrow-minded existence which ultimately led to weak resistance against foreign invaders. He takes note of incongruity between legal theories expounded in law books and practical aspect of legal system. |
Alberuni, did not play a partisan role and condemned Mahmud Ghazni’s destructive activities. He was perhaps the first to have undertaken the study of Indian society on such a major scale.
Where Alberuni was not very sure of his own knowledge, he frankly admitted it. His critical assessment of Indian customs and ways of life, festivals, ceremonies and rites is particularly interesting. He says that the fact that Indians had started depending on tradition heavily was a hindrance to genuine intellectual quest. He felt that learning and scientific spirit suffered because they had been sub-ordained to religion.
Indian customs, manners, festivals are also vividly portrayed by Alberuni. Some customs described by Alberuni are the following:
People divide the moustache into single plait to preserve it. They allow nails to grow long, glorifying their idleness, since they do not use them for any work.
The Hindus throw away eaten plates if they are earthen.
They have red teeth due to chewing of arecanuts with betel leaves and chalk.
They sip the stall of cows, but they do not eat their meat.
Men use turbans and trousers.
The man wears article of female dress; they use cosmetics, wear ear-rings, arm-rings, golden seal-rings on the right finger as well as on the toes of the feet.
Men take advice of woman in all consultations and emergencies. They do not ask permission to enter house but when they leave it, they ask permission to do so.
They write title of the books at the end of it, not at the beginning.
He takes an important note of the fact that most of the festivals are celebrated by women and children only.
These customs amuses and sometimes horrifies Alberuni.
“Ancient Indians had no taste for historiography; their scholars cared more for religious, spiritual and philosophical studies. Indian historiography is essentially an Islamic heritage.” Comment upon this statement with special reference to the contemporary writers and their works which help us in the reconstruction of history of the early medieval period of Indian history. [1996, 60m]
Though ancient Indians were much concerned about the religion and philosophy, they weren't interested in writing their own political history. Unlike them, medieval Indian historians, primarily Muslims, showed keen interest in recording the daily happenings and political upheavals.
Their primary objective in doing was to glorify Islam. Muslim rulers employed chroniclers, court historians to record their activities in systematic and chronological manner. Even historians wrote not only for fame and rewards but also to satiate their intellectual hunger and their inner urge to record their observations.
The following writers/works are among them who/which helped in reconstruction of early medieval indian history:
Chach Nama :- It is the most authentic primary source written by unknown author in Arabic. It tells us about the ruling dynasty in Sind on the eve of Arab invasion in 711-12.
Alberuni during Ghazni period.
Hasan Nizami :- His Tajul Maasir - 'The Crown of Exploits' deals primarily with the history of Qutubuddin Aibaq. It is the first historical narrative which deals the Muslim rule in India cutting off the Ghazni and Central Asian history.
Amir Khusrau, Barani.
Excluding Muslim and foreign accounts, a few indigenous literature also deal with the early Indian medieval history. They are Kalhana's Rajatarangini and Prithviraja Raso. Former gives an account of Kashmir history and the latter about the Rajput civilisation.
Among all the works about early medieval India most of them are written by Muslim writers about their Islam rulers. So it is essentially a Islam heritage.
Write a short essay on: “Social structure of the Rajputs.” [1998, 20m]
“The inferior cavalry of the Rajputs was not the only cause of their defeat at the hands of Turko- Afghans and Mughal.” Comment. [2001, 60m]
Bring out the salient features of the polity & social structure of the Rajputs. To what extent were they responsible for the weakness of the Rajputs to the foreign invaders? [1988, 60m]
Factors, why India could not save from 'repeated attacks':
Politico-Admin Factors: | Military Factors: | Social Factors: | Economic Factors: | Religious Factors: | Cultural Factors: |
No central authority – small Rajput States. No Sound Strategy – no attention to developments in C Asia. Mutual animosity – no support. Busy in internal affairs. Tri-partite struggle – 100 years, exhausted, Political vacuum. | Feudal – difficulty in loyalty of soldiers. Leadership – inferior wrt Ghazni Defensive – wait for enemy to come. Swiftness – moved w city. Weapons – Turks used Persian bow Turks cavalry – Iron Stirrup; Rajput- rely on elephants; rope. | Rajput – social evils (Sati, caste, child marriage). Degenerated state => internally divided. Turks – Egalitarian (Islam). | Rajput – Agri based, no secondary industries. Temples – amassed huge wealth – attracted and motivated Turks. | Islamist identity – united. Jihad – motivated. | Rajput – Ethical Warfare. Rajput - War was a pastime affair. Turks – attack anytime; kill not pardon. |
Defeat of PRC in Battle of Tarain II resulted in establishment of Turkish rule in India. The IMPACT of TURKISH rule in India:
Politico-Admin | Military Changes | Socio-Cultural | Religious | Economy and Technology and Architecture |
Centralized – Political Unification of India End of Feudalism Portfolio system: 4 main departments –
Iqta system Imperialist Outlook – whole NI. | Army under Sultan – ready mode Direct Frontal attack – abandoned Persian bow, cavalry – shoe and iron-stirrup Regular inspection of troops. | Negative – Fear environment – women conditions deteriorate – child marriage, veil, Sati, Jauhar. Positive – Egalitarian – free from evils – caste, un-touch =>inspired Nanak and Kabir New Food, festival, Persian Language Persian + Hindu = Urdu (Camp) Historiography –remarkable progress | Islam Sufi Saint – 1st Chistis Bhakti movement - impetus | Encouragement to Secondary and Tertiary – Early Medieval Rajput's treated artisans and craftsman – untouchables Pure coins (Ag, Au, Cu) – facilitate trade. Persian wheel (Sakia) – boost to irrigation. Paper manufacturing technology. Book binding technology – new craft. Spinning wheel = yarn pdtn increased 6x. Pit looms – weaver can use hand and feet. Blot printing. Gun Powder. Arches and Domes. Use of Lime mortar – gave boost to construction activity. |
No. of Urban centres emerged -> 3rd phase of Urban Revolution (HC, 6BC, 13AD, 18AD).
SAMBHAL -
In late 12th C, it was the capital of Pritviraj Chauhan of Chahmana Dynasty until he shifted capital to Delhi and Ajmer. In late 15th and early 16th C, the second ruler of Afghan Lodi Dynasty Sikander Lodi made it one of his provincial capitals. During the reign of third ME, Akbar it was a Sarkar in the Subah of Delhi.
Shahi Jama Masjid, built by a Mughal General Mir Hindu Beg, in 1528, is the only surviving Mughal building constructed during the time of Babur.
Make an estimate of Rana Kumbha as a patron of literature and art. [2015, 15m] [MEWAR]
Rana Kumbha was a very brave and talented military commander and ruler. Rana Kumbha conquered states like Bundi, Kota etc and annexed Sambhar, Didwana, Mandore, Nagaur, Ranthambore, Sirohi etc.
Cultural achievements - He was a great musician himself and took a keen interest in music. He was a great Veena player. He wrote works like Sangit Raj, Sangit Mimansa, ‘Sangit Ratnakar’ and Sudprabandh.
Kumbha erected a Victory Tower at Chittor as a mark of victory of his conquests. He constructed the city of Basantpur. He built several inns, palaces, ponds, schools, and temples. For the defence of the Kingdom, he built five forts of Kumbhalgarh, Achalgarh, Maddan, Kolana and Vairat.
Rana Kumba gave patronage to many craftsmen and sculptors. He also patronised great scholars. Mahesh and Atri, the composers of the inscriptions of Victory Tower flourished in his court.
Sadly he lost his life at the hands of his own son.
Rana Sanga (1509-28) the grandson of Rana Kumbha was a ferocious brave Rajput ruler who fought several battles. He lost one eye, one arm and had about 88 scars of wounds on his body. He captured the ruler of Malwa who had been wounded and kept at Chittor till his wounds were healed. He also defeated the Delhi Sultan Ibrahim Lodi in 1519. It is said that he was one of the Indian rulers and nobles who invited Babur to invade India.
He lost to Babur in the battle of Khanua in 1527. Rana Sanga escaped and wanted to renew the conflict with Babur. However, he was prisoned by his own nobles who considered such a course dangerous and suicidal.
Maharana Pratap also belonged to this dynasty.
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