Syllabus:
(i) Post War Foundations: NATO and European Community (ii) Political Changes in Eastern Europe 1989-2001.
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The Cold War resulted in emergence of two Power Blocks. Most of western European countries sided with the US and Eastern Europe joined the Soviet camp. That is why these were also called the ‘western’ and ‘eastern’ alliances.
The western alliance formalised into NATO in 1949. It was a group of 12 states which declared that any attack on them in Europe or North America would be regarded as an attack on all of them. Currently it consists of 28 independent member countries. US Senate recently voted with near unanimity to approve Montenegro as 29th member of NATO. So far, 25 other NATO members have ratified Montenegro’s accession, a small country which is being seen as a geostrategic ally. However, Spain and Netherlands are yet to ratify its membership.
The Eastern alliance known as WARSAW Pact, 1955 was to counter the NATO.
“The Brussels Treaty of 17 March, 1948 paved the way for the formation of NATO.” [2003, 20 Marks]
“NATO in many ways symbolized the key role that the United States had come to play in Europe.” [2007, 20 Marks]
The formal announcement of formation of NATO though was made in April 1949, it were earlier events of hostility between the west and USSR which culminated into the treaty of Brussels and proved to be the precursor of NATO.
The Brussels treaty in March 1948 was signed by five European countries Britain, France, Holland, Belgium and Luxembourg promising military collaboration in the event of war with single military command. The basic provisions of NATO were directly derived from this treaty.
With the starting of cold war after Second World War, one of the major incident war the ‘blockade of Berlin’ by USSR which prompted the western powers being led by the USA to airlift the food supply along with other life-saving articles. The blocked showed the West’s military unpreparedness and frightened them into making definite preparation.
In the light of Brussel’s treaty along the recent crisis during Berlin Blocked, hurried preparation were made to included USA and other major powers to come together for a military alliance and unified military command. Thus NATO was born in April 1919 with the USA, Canada, Portugal, Italy, Norway and Denmark etc. It was decided to place their defense forces under a joint NATO command organization to co-ordinate the defense of the west.
Hence, the basic provision of Brussels treaty were incorporated to form a bigger North Atlantic Treaty to form NATO.
“Europe was eclipsed through European folly due to the two world wars.” Elucidate. [2014, 20 Marks]
“Europe faced peace in 1945 politically disorganized and economically crippled.” Elaborate. [2010, 30 Marks]
The reunification of Germany in 1990 is one of the most important historical milestones of the European history after 1945. It once again created the strong Germany in the Europe and signalled the end of cold war.
Why Germany got divided after 2nd WW?
AFTER its defeat in World War II, Germany was divided into four zones under the control of the United States, Britain, France and the former Soviet Union. The division was initially decide as provisional one. What the Powers desired was an economically united Germany rather than a divided one because the country’s economic recovery was a prerequisite of the revival of post-war Europe.
However, the post-war development of Germany turned out to be different from the settlement of the Potsdam Conference (1945). The Powers failed to adhere to what they had decided in the conference and began to pursue their own interest in their occupation zones.
Different policies were carried out in the four zones, so economic unity and inter-zonal agreements had never been achieved. The most serious divergence existed in the US zone and the Russian zone, and consequently frictions developed between them.
The problem of reparations was the focus of dispute. For the Russians, the extraction of the greatest possible amount of reparations from Germany was of primary importance, so equipment was removed from the German factories and products were seized. For the Western Powers, the economic reconstruction of Germany was given priority.
There was also a disagreement on shaping post-war Germany. The former Soviet Union extended the communist economic and political systems towards its sphere of influence. The government, police and factories were dominated by communists. Nationalisation and socialisation went on in full swing.
Land was collected and then redistributed to the peasants. Bigger industries and commerce were transferred from the private sectors to state ownership. As a result, the Russian zone developed separately from the Western occupation zones.
In the Western zones, a different pattern of polices was carried out. The Allies preferred to stop Germany from posing as a menace to the world order by making it a peaceful member of the international community. The United States hoped for a democratic, pluralistic and capitalistic Germany that could become a market and partner of its trade.
After about a year of unpleasant experience, the Americans, British and French realised that they could hardly co-operate with the Russians on the German economic reconstruction and political unification, so they decided to work on their own. The release of the Truman Doctrine in March 1947 ended all the possibility of a US-Soviet co-operation and dashed the hope of German reunification as well. Later that year, one more step was taken to consolidate the unity of a West Germany. Three western nations decided to unify there areas into single block. The merger of the three Western zones was completed by mid-1948.
The Russians reacted by introducing the Ostmark in their occupation zone and the whole of Berlin. They also suspended all land and air traffic to Berlin. This was known as the “Berlin Blockade”.
The Western Allies had to carry out massive airlift to provide food and other supplies to the West Berliners. The Russians eventually agreed to put an end to the blockade as it was costing more than it was worth, but the fundamental differences between Russia and the Western Powers on Germany could not be reconciled. The Berlin Blockade accelerated the setting up of a separate government in the Western zones.
The Federal German Republic (West Germany) was set up on September 21, 1949. This was followed by the setting up of the German Democratic Republic (East Germany) with East Berlin as its capital a month later.
Factors contributing Germany’s unification –
Economic crisis in East Germany, Role of Mikhail Gorbachev, Weakening of hold of USSR,
Role of Helmut Kohl – West German Chancellor who, after the fall of the Berlin Wall, clearly declared his intention to reunify both parts of the divided German state. On 28 October he gave in Bundestag an important speech in which he emphasized necessity of a speedy reunification of both German republics.
Reunification of Germany was one of the most important events of the 20th century. It gave shape to the wishes of the Germans and healed the wounds of the division. With the unification, Germany regained its glory and changed the course of history forever.
“The collapse of Berlin Wall in 1988 brought new ideas of co-operation in Europe.” Critically evaluate. [2011, 10 Marks]
Consolidation and Expansion of European Community; European Union
‘Euro-scepticism’ in EU countries:
UK for Eg, sometimes stays away from EU or if within EU sides with US against Iraq coming at odds with other members.
Denmark and Sweden are members but don’t use Euro.
The supranational entity (Beyond the borders or scope of any one nation) of EU brings disability of EU in foreign relations and defence.
“The European Union, a diplomatic marvel, continues to grapple with intermittent fissures arising out of economic contentious issues that pose a challenge to an effective integration of the Union.” Critically examine. [2015, 20 Marks]
After the end of bipolar structure in 1990s that it became clear that alternative centres of political and economic powers can restrict USA dominance, alternative centres of power EU (Eurasian Union) and ASEAN (Association of South East Asian Nations) emerged.
TREATY OF MAASTRICHT (accelerated the cooperation among European countries): The fall of Soviet bloc put Europe on a fast track and resulted in formation of European Union in 1992 under this treaty.
Lisbon Treaty is an international agreement that amended the Maastricht Treaty, Treaties of Rome, and other documents to simplify and streamline the institutions that govern the European Union (EU).
Recently, Britain became the first nation in history to trigger Article 50, the six-paragraph-long section of the Lisbon Treaty, briefly outlining the process for exiting the union.
Europe since Maastricht (1991 to Millennium)
With the continued success of Union, more states applied for membership in 1995. Treaty of Amsterdam signed in 1997 clarified some of the points of 1991 Maastricht agreement: the Union undertook to promote full employment, better living and working conditions. In the new millennium, new European currency- Euro was introduced. The prospect of gradual enlargement raised a number of issues and concern like – union would be too large, closer political integration would be impossible; former communist states are so economically backward that they cannot join on equal terms. The 1999 report revealed widespread corruption and fraud in higher places – severe blow to prestige of Union – called for reforms.
Problems and tensions:
Germany wanted a strong European government with more power given to European Commission and Council of Ministers. Britain felt political integration had gone far enough and did not want governments of individual states to lose more of their powers.
Terrorist attacks of 9 September 2001 in USA threw EU into confusion. Foreign and defence issues were left to individual states to take initiatives – this was resented by smaller states.
Attack on Iraq by USA and UK in March 2003 caused new tensions. Germany and France were strongly opposed to any military action not authorized by UN. Failure to agree on a unified response to the Iraq situation did not bode well for prospects of formulating a common foreign and defence policy.
In 2003 both France and Germany breached the EU rule laid down in Maastricht – budget deficits exceeded 3% of GDP – bending of rules in favour of two larger member states infuriated the smaller members.
Therefore, to handle the main issue of balancing interests of larger and smaller member states – voting system was reformed – To pass a measure: at least 15 countries representing 65% of EUs total population; To block: at least 4 countries with 35% of population.
“The European union is the new sick man of Europe.” Critically evaluate. [2013 25 Marks]
In the light of sixty years of the European integration and recent crises it’s facing, critically examine weaknesses in the European Union structure.
Context: European Union in Crisis – In September 2008, worse financial collapse since 1929 occurred and this spread to Europe – exports contracted alarmingly, one by one member states plunged into recession.
The sovereign debt crisis [PIGS], followed by bankruptcy and bailout measures of various sovereign states.
Now the continent is reeling under an immigration and refugee crisis. The Brexit process and the recent rise of far-right nationalist parties are certainly reflective of the EU’s fundamental constitutional weakness and democratic deficit.
Clearly the enlarged EU has vast potential, though it will need to deal with some serious weaknesses –
Common Agricultural policy continues to encourage high production levels at expense of quality, and causes a great deal of damage to the economies of developing world.
Pace of integration [subsuming ever more critical areas of national Interest and policy], Inadequate integration [monitoring was lightened and soft commitments], Excessive integration [unconscious denial of the unequal advancement of different member states].
Increasing immigration into EU about half of which consisted of Muslims, led to racial and religious tensions – birth rate among native populations was declining while that of the Muslims was increasing; In Amsterdam there were more practising Muslims than either Protestants or Catholics. The new diversity has not fostered harmony. It has stoked conflict.
While Britain took the most perilous road in attempting to dissociate itself completely from the EU, other member states, like France, Italy and Netherlands have witnessed the alarming rise of right-wing nationalist parties, with either an explicit or implicit agenda for resisting integration.
Eurozone in Crisis: Financial crisis in Greece sparked things off - Greece had manipulated its borrowing figures to join the euro (2001) – debts were enormous – country’s budget deficit stood at 6% - in reality was 12.7%, over half its actual debt had been moved into the shadow banking system, ‘off balance sheet’ – massive tax evasion, corrupt practices – pension still being paid to families of the deceased.
Other Eurozone countries had also got themselves to heavily in debt. Hungary’s currency, forint was in freefall. Italy, Ireland, Spain and Portugal had huge debts. And everywhere unemployment was rising.
Germany see further integration as answer to the existing problems while states like Poland have opposed further integration. Out of this has emerged the concept of multi-speed Europe.
Monetary Union without fiscal union had failed. ECB was forced to break its own rules and start buying up the debt of these two (Spain and Italy) massive, non-bailable economies. Dilemma – whether to impose losses from south European bad debts onto north European taxpayers | or onto the bankers who had actually lent the money to these bankrupt countries in the first place. By hitting the streets, Greece people were able to force Europe to impose losses on the bankers.
However, there are positives as well,
The fact that since 1945, the countries of Western Europe have been at peace with each other and are unlikely to go to war with each other is in itself a considerable achievement.
In 2004, EU was providing well over half the world’s development aid – far more than USA.
European Galileo space satellite system enables civilian ships and aircraft to navigate and find their positions more accurately.
Germany the largest economy in Europe is still in good shape to steer other economies.
Today, the EU represents one of the most unique experiments in regional integration, far denser and more institutionalized, admitting no such parallels in the world. Thus the EU needs to be both prepared and predisposed towards adapting to such change, mindful however, of assimilating the varying standpoints of its constituent units. To recapture the public imagination of its people, EU needs to demystify its construct, interact closely at the local level and consolidate its position as the predominant agent for hope and a better life, thus aligning itself closer to its founding goals and principles.
Though it is the new sick man but chances of revival are also showing up.
Lithuania celebrates 100 years of independence
Lithuania’s statehood stretches back to the 13th Century when its first king, Mindaugas, was crowned in 1253. Later, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was a major European powerhouse until the federation was wiped off the map in 1795 by imperial Russia, Prussia and Austria.
Until World War I, Lithuania was a province of the Russian empire, which sought to crush nationalism and even banned the Lithuanian alphabet.
The Lithuanian council declared independence on February 16, 1918, when the country was still under German occupation. Brief wars with Bolsheviks and Poles followed before Lithuania won international recognition in the following years.
Modern Lithuania was an independent nation between the two World Wars. Then the Soviet Union invaded in 1940, Nazi Germany invaded in 1941, and the Soviets returned in 1944.
Independence drive:
Democracy campaigners launched an independence drive in the 1980s that eventually made it the first Soviet republic to declare independence in March 1990. Lithuania finally won recognition from Moscow after the failed coup by hardliners in the Soviet capital in August 1991.
In 2004, Vilnius’s pro-Western drive culminated with EU and NATO membership. In 2015, Lithuania adopted the euro. Unlike certain other ex-communist countries, Lithuania has sought to avoid major confrontations with the EU.
“Only by being united can European nations be sovereign and free of dependency on the great superpowers,” European Council chief Donald Tusk told reporters on Thursday. “Lithuania understands this all too well, and that is why it has always played an active and constructive role.”
Why did ASEAN nations form this entity?
The South East Asia was suffered consequences of repeated colonialism of European and Japanese. At the end of war it faced challenges of reconstruction, fighting poverty and economic backwardness. Efforts and Asian and Third world unity like Bandung Conference, NAM failed and these nations organised themselves into ASEAN.
When and who formed ASEAN?
In 1967, 5 countries – Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand, Indonesia, and Philippines formed ASEAN with the Bangkok Declaration.
What was the primary aim of ASEAN?
Economic growth though social progress and cultural development.
What was the secondary aim of ASEAN?
Regional stability and peace through rule of law and principles of UN Charter.
What is the difference between ASEAN and EU?
ASEAN is informal structure while EU looks for forming supranational structure. Sovereignty is very critical for ASEAN nations.
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