Syllabus:
Rise of Gandhi; Character of Gandhian nationalism; Gandhi’s popular appeal; Rowlatt Satyagraha; The Khilafat Movement; The Non-cooperation Movement; The two phases of the Civil Disobedience Movement; The Quit India Movement; National politics from the end of the NCM to the beginning of CDM; Simon Commission; The Nehru Report; The Round Table Conferences; Nationalism and the Peasant Movements;
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MAINS QUESTIONS:
How would you explain Gandhiji’s ‘rise to power’ or ‘capture’ of national leadership in the course of 1919-20? Was it a very skilful top-level political game? [1987, 60m]
The period began with Gandhi's return from South Africa as a stranger to Indian politics, witnessed his dramatic assertion of leadership in the Indian National Congress of 1920.
Gandhi's rise to power is explained based on a charismatic appeal to the Indian masses. Also, his influence depended on a capacity to generate a network of lesser leaders, or subcontractors, who would organise their constituencies for him, whether these were caste, communal or economic groups or whole areas.
This is in light of Gandhi using Khilafat as cause for NCM.
“Gandhi’s mystique consisted of a union of original ideas with a remarkable flair for tactics and an uncanny insight in the mass mind.” Elucidate. [1999, 60m]
He galvanised the Indian public to rally behind him to fight the war of freedom, with the superior non-war weapons of peace, thus rousing the enemy’s conscience and the world opinion in favour of the Indian cause, which ultimately forced the enemy to quit the battlefield.
High Moral Standing.
Non-Violence Superior to Violence.
Leadership rooted in Spirituality.
The Sterling Leadership Traits - One, his strength of courage lay both in the physical and moral planes. Two, forever he led from the front.
Victory without War
Explain the circumstances leading to the alliance between the Khilafat and Non-Cooperation Movements. Was it a politically wise step on the part of the Congress? [2007, 60m]
Three main demands of Khilafat Committee formed in Bombay in March 1919: The Khalifa must retain control over the Muslim holy places; He must be left with his pre-war territories so that he could maintain his position as the head of the Islamic world; and jazirat-ul-Arab (Arabia, Syria, Iraq and Palestine) must not be under non-Muslim sovereignty. Was Khilafat thus, a pan-Islamic movement? Yes in all its appearance, as the cause had nothing to do with India. Gandhi support this cause -1. It was anti-British. 2. Bring the Muslims into the mainstream of Indian nationalism.
“M.K Gandhi made a gross mistake in championing the Khilafat cause, an extra-territorial issue which cut at the very roots of Indian nationality.”
The Khilafat issue, as pointed by historians, was mostly related to Pan-Islamic movement which had little immediate concern with India. Still, Gandhiji chose this issue for its first mass agitation against the British.
Few historians have termed this as a gross mistake from his part as the issue of Khilafat ultimately died down but the religious emotions it had articulated among Muslims continued to persist and matched by an equally militant Hindu radicalism.
The Khilafat agitation which was based upon the issues of – Khalifa at Turkey must retain control of Muslim holy places, he must be left with pre-war (World War I) territories and the Arab world most not be under non-Muslim sovereignty were not at all related to India.
The Khilafat leaders’ attitude also revealed that they took Gandhi’s non-violence creed as convenience to get his charismatic appeal, and not as a matter of faith. By using a religious symbol, the movement evoked religious sentiments among the Muslim masses.
However, despite the Khilafat issue being religious in nature, Gandhiji found in it an issue which could unite the Indian Muslim community which was divided into lines of regional, linguistic, class and sectarian. This issue hence brought the Muslim masses into the mainstream for the first time. It also witnessed the Hindu-Muslim unity in boycotting the institutions and following other organizations.
“This retention of Rowlatt legislation in the teeth of universal opposition is an affront to the nation. Its repeal is necessary to appease national honour.” Critically examine. [2015, 10m]
Gandhiji opposed the bills for several reasons. He believed that the proposed powers were out of all proportions to the danger, particularly when the Viceroy possessed emergency powers of legislation by ordinance, and he thought that they were instruments of distrust and repression, nullifying the proposed reforms. Moreover he opposed not just the content of bills, but also the manner in which they were foisted on the country without regard to public opinion. He justified resistance to the government on grounds that it was taking away from the people their God-given rights: since in his view the government only held power by will of God it ceased to command obedience when it disobeyed the fundamental laws of the God.
The remedy he proposed was Satyagraha.
What were the circumstances that led Mahatma Gandhi to start the Non-cooperation Movement? Examine its contribution to India’s struggle for freedom. [1980, 60m]
Hunter Commission report was published, and it did not seem strong enough in condemning General Dyer's role in the Jallianwala Bagh massacre => infuriated Indian public.
Allahabad conference of the Central Khilafat Committee, held on 1-2 June 1920 decided to launch a four stage non-cooperation movement: boycott of titles, civil services, police and army and finally non-payment of taxes.
Extensive mobilising tours of Gandhi and Shaukat Ali. Coinciding of death of Tilak. Punjab wrong, Khilafat wrong and Swaraj. In Young India – MKG wrote would bring swaraj in one year.
Of the four linguistic regions in South India, three were effectively brought into the movement, while Karnataka remained unaffected.
Some non-Brahman lower-caste participation in Madras and Maharashtra, powerful tribal movements in Andhra delta and Bengal in the form of forest Satyagraha, labour unrest in Madras, Bengal and Assam, traders' participation in Bombay and Bengal.
“Many of us who worked for the congress programme lived in a kind of intoxication during the year 1921. We were full of excitement and optimism… we had a sense of freedom and pride in that freedom.” Critically examine. [2013, 10m]
Non-cooperation movement was like a mighty tidal wave which swept through the length and breadth of the whole country and drawing into it all sections of people. Comment critically.
NCM was peaceful in which every section participated; Urban, rural -1st, women;
Significance of this phase - beginning of new phase in Indian struggle against Br rule; GANDHIAN; 1st true mass movement, pan-India;
Gandhiji promised freedom in 1 year - an atmosphere of intoxication in launch of NCM - everybody was under the confidence that things would change completely - Tilak Swaraj fund
-ve side: when removed after Chauri Chaura - disillusionment, differences - no changers vs pro changers.
Gandhiji neatly converted a political movement into a moral war that his adversary just could not win.
He made it difficult for British to rule over India. Now national movement was converted into moral war - fought with soul force = atma shakti and finally British left in 1947.
Right methods to achieve right acts; Practiced what he preached => attracted millions towards him + women participation = pan-India.
Participation of common masses removed fear from Indian minds -> Psychological movement -> Indians came out of British mental subjugation.
Us moral law, the laws of conscience, higher than the law of the state, which is oppressive. Comment [2008, 20m]
This comment was made by Gandhiji in 1922 in the court of Justice Broonfield when he was being tried for the violent incidence witnessed during NCM in 1922.
Gandhiji was a firm believer in the idea of Satyagraha. His movement was essentially an ethical, moral struggle.
Gandhiji was convinced that the moral law is the true law of Universe.
The concept of moral law was put forward by German philosopher Emmanuel Kant. He emphasised that, the moral law is highest law and law of state is to be based on it. If a law of state is in contravention (conflict) with universal moral law then the citizens are not bound to abide by it. Gandhiji also believed the same.
As a firm believer in the idea of Satyagraha, Gandhiji was convinced that it’s the moral right and obligation of everybody to stand against the wrongs. At the same time Gandhiji emphasised that cooperation with good was equally important.
In the court of Justice Broonfield Gandhiji accepted the responsibility of all the incident that took place in NCM because he was convinced that his decision to launch the NCM was not a mistake in anyway. Gandhiji didn’t try to defend himself and even he was awarded a jail term of mistake and he readily accepted it.
“Gandhi’s body is in jail but his soul is with you, India’s prestige is in your hands, you must not use any violence under any circumstances. You will be beaten but you must not resist, you must not raise a hand to ward off blows.” Critically examine. [2013, 10m]
Gandhiji had launched CDM on 12 March 1930 with Dandi March and Salt Satyagraha. Gandhi looked at the Dandi March as a non-violent weapon of struggle against injustice by breaking salt laws and a medium of dialogue and communication with the people along the route of March. The Dandi March and its consequences demonstrated the effectiveness of non-violent mass struggle.
Just before Gandhi’s arrest on May 5, 1930 at Kaladi, near Dandi, he announced his intention of raising Dharasana Salt works as a part of Salt Satyagraha, about 150 miles north of Bombay. With Gandhi in jail, Mrs Sarojini Naidu, a close associate of Gandhi and a poetess assumed the leadership and went to the site of salt pans near Dharasana with about 25000 volunteers.
She made it clear with her words [mentioned in the question] that the absence of Gandhi should not mean the absence of his principles like non-violence and Satyagraha, which were the best ways to defeat mighty British Raj. Any attempt to become violent could have given legitimacy and excuse to the British to suppress the movement. She wanted every man and woman to act like a Gandhi.
As expected, on unarmed and peaceful volunteers, there was brutal lathicharge by the Police but volunteers followed the Gandhian principle and remained non-violent.
Mr Miller, the American Journalist who covered Dharasana Satyagraha and gave descriptive account of the event including the given statement of Naidu, observed that not a single arm was raised to fend off the blows of lathicharge. The volunteers marched slowly towards the police. Although everyone knew within a few minutes, he would be beaten down, perhaps killed, there was no sign of wavering or fear. There was no fight, no struggle, the marchers simply walked forward until struck down. Leaders kept exhorting the Gandhiji’s intentions to the volunteers whenever the crowd became intensively excited against policemen.
Mr Miller’s report of Dharasana Salt Satyagraha and the brutal beating of non-violent volunteers caused a sensation when it appeared in the thousands of newspapers served by the United Press throughout the world. It showed the brutality of the British regime and the power of Gandhian principles.
Do you think that Quit India movement was a Spontaneous Revolution? [2009, 30m]
“To characterize the Quit India Movement as ‘Spontaneous Revolution’ would be partial interpretation, so also would be to look up at it as the culmination of Gandhian Satyagraha movements.” Elucidate. [2015, 20m]
Various scholars have analysed questions of spontaneity and preparedness of QIM in terms of action and reaction. The overwhelming view is that QIM was not a controlled volunteer movement like MKGs previous movements. It was not conceived as a traditional Satyagraha. It was to be 'fight to the finish', 'an open rebellion', 'short and swift' which could very well plunge the country into conflagration.
In the wake of All India CWC passing the QI resolution at Bombay on 8th August 1942, eminent Congress leaders like MKG, VBP, JLN, AK Azad were arrested the very next day. The arrest of the leaders made the people aghast and took them completely unawares. The masses were left without any guidance. Gandhi's do or die call created an upheaval in the country. Large number of students left their schools and colleges to join the movement. Strikes, demonstrations and public meetings were organized in various towns and cities. The very size of the crowds made the government nervous.
Tension bred Tension and led to confrontation. Since people had no guidance with the leaders either behind the bars or underground, passions ran high. Individuals and groups interpreted the situations to the best of their understanding and acted, as they thought best. The continuing police repression and 'Ordinance Raj' further inflamed the feelings of the people. Slowly the movement reached the rural areas. In 1943, as the movement gained further momentum, there were armed attacks on government buildings in Madras and Bengal.
Therefore, what started as individual acts of angry defiance, soon swelled into a movement and the movement into a revolt. Hence we can say that the QIM captures the quintessence of a spontaneous rising by the people.
Note: It can also be justified that QIM was not a spontaneous revolution. For example, individual Satyagraha was already started by Gandhi earlier; there was already warning of a movement by Congress; masses were already preparing for movement due to war time difficulties faced by them; there was instructions to masses in resolution of QIM about what to do in case there is no one to lead etc.
“The nationalist political movements for liberation such as the non-cooperation and civil disobedience movements and their leadership depended heavily on the peasantry.” Comment. [1993, 20m]
The main source of strength of Mahatma Gandhi’s movement was rural India. Elucidate.
'The mainstay of Mahatma Gandhi's movements was the rural India.' Elucidate
Pan India movement - >90% Indian's lived in Villages. Thus mainstay was rural.
Gandhiji's belief that development of India meant development of Villages. Eg: No Rent No Revenue could only be implemented through village participation.
Because of participation of Villages - Gandhiji's movements got new life, strength and energy.
Without the participation of villages the Gandhian movement could have never assumed a true mass character.
Many of the programmes of Gandhian movement revolved around Indian villages. The Village reconstruction programme was essentially rural.
Gandhi restrained mass-movements yet he retained his popularity among the masses. How do you explain this paradox? [1994, 60m] [2002, 20m]
A man of action. He preached what he followed in his life. His ideals of Satya and Ahimsa were acceptable to the masses. He could maintain mass support through conciliation, convincing and cooperation.
His first political action was in Champaran Bihar. He applied Satyagraha for the first time in Champaran. His success at Champaran attracted the masses.
In NCM, Gandhi included Muslims as well. Though CR Das was against the combined Khilafat NCM movement, Gandhiji convinced and conciliated him and finally CR Das read the resolution of NCM in 1920 Nagpur Session.
Whenever movements had gone violent, Gandhiji withdrew it. But this did not reduce his popularity among the masses. Gandhiji was a crowd puller. He could bring women, peasants, industrialists into the arena of freedom struggle.
Gandhiji believed that means and ends are the same. His peaceful means were favourable for the majority. He considered Truth as his religion and thus did not alienate any community. The methods of fasting against British actions touched the commons.
Hence, even though he had no clear idea of the end of the movements he started, the people from all sections rallied behind him.
Analyse the factors responsible for the Civil Disobedience movement (1930-31). How far were its aims realised in the Government of India Act of 1935 ? [2005, 60m]
Death of C. R. Das in 1925 and the disruption of the Swarajya Party and the recall of the non-co-operation movement etc. had somewhat damped the national movement, but the appointment of Simon Commission by the British government gave a fillip to the national movement.
There were altogether seven members on the Commission but not a single Indian was included in it. Non-inclusion of any Indian in the Commission was taken by the Congress and other political parties as a national insult.
During the demonstration against Simon Commission on October 30, 1928 the Police struck Lala Lajpat Ray on his head which ultimately led to his death. This convulsed whole of India and the revolutionaries all over India began to take revenge against the British. In Lahore Saunders, the Police Superintendent was killed. Revolutionary activities also began in Punjab, Bengal, Madras, Bihar, Delhi etc. As the government started cruel oppression of the revolutionaries in jail, the revolutionaries kept in Lahore jail in connection with Lahore conspiracy case began fasting. Jatin Das, a Bengali youth fasted unto death in Lahore jail in protest against the inhuman torture by the jail authorities on the revolutionaries.
All this sent a wave of condemnation of the British all over the country and there was uncontrollable anti-British feelings all over. In the circumstances it became necessary to popularize the demand for full freedom from the British rule and Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhas Chandra Basu established Independence League which created a universal demand for full independence. In the Lahore session it was decided to start civil disobedience if Dominion Status was not granted by 1929 but no details about the civil disobedience movement had been chalked out. The entire matter was left to Mahatma Gandhi.
Nehru Report | Jinnah’s Amendments |
Demand for Dominion Status Rejection of Separate Electorate and Joint Electorate (reservation) for Muslims in provinces where they are in minority. Linguistic provinces. Full protection to cultural and religious interests of minorities. 19 FRs. Complete dissociation of state from religion. | Reservation in Bengal and Punjab in proportion to Muslim population + 1/3 reservation in CLA. 14 points – Provincial autonomy; Adequate reservation to Muslims – services, self-government bodies; Separate electorate. Separation of Sindh from Bom and form of NWFP and Baluchistan. In cabinet – 1/3 Muslim |
Failure to accept Nehru Report Demands led to CDM.
Identify the main strands in the Civil Disobedience Movement with particular reference to the changing role of ‘business pressures’ in the country [1985, 60m]
Show how the Civil Disobedience was marked by much scattered potentially radical manifestations. Was the Karachi Congress an indication of certain basic weakness of the entire movement? [1992, 60m]
Strands in CDM | Contribution of CDM |
Business Class Agitation:
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Sudden Withdrawal
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With reference to modern Indian history, Cunningham Circular is associated with?
During the Civil disobedience Movement, in Assam, a powerful agitation was organised against the infamous ‘Cunningham circular’. Cunningham circular forced parents, guardians and students to furnish assurances of good behavior. Students were also prohibited from participating in political activities associated with the freedom movement.
Gandhi imputed a broader meaning into the word 'independence' to oppose its divisive impact.
In this regard what was the 11 point ultimatum Gandhi placed before Irwin? | Gandhi-Irwin Pact |
It was a compromise formula –
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Not accepted -
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“At Karachi in 1931 , the congress defined what Swaraj would mean for the masses.” Comment. [2007, 20m]
The Congress met at Karachi on 29th March 1931 to endorse the Gandhi-Irwin or the Delhi Pact.
Bhagat Singh, Rajguru and Sukhdev had been executed despite Gandhji's best efforts to save their lives. The Congress endorsed the Delhi Pact and reiterated the goal of Purna Swaraj.
The Karachi session became memorable for its resolution on the Fundamental Rights and the National Economic Programs. Even though the Congress had from its inception fought for the economic interests, civil rights and political liberties of the people, this was the first time that the Congress defined what Swaraj would mean for the masses. It also declared that in order to end the exploitation of the masses, political freedom must include the real economic freedom for the starving millions.
The resolution guaranteed basic civil rights of free speech, free press, free assembly and freedom of association, equality before law irrespective of caste, creed or sex; neutrality of state in regard to all religions, elections on basis of universal adult franchise, and free and compulsory education.
It promised substantial reduction in rent and revenue, exemption from rent in case of uneconomic holdings, and relief of agricultural in datedness, control of usury, and better conditions for workers including a living wage, limited hours of work and protection of women workers.
It also conferred the right to organize and form unions to workers and peasants, and state ownership or control of key industries, mines and means of transport. It also maintained that the culture, language and script of the minorities and of different linguistic areas shall be protected.
The Karachi resolution by setting the parameters of the Swaraj was reflecting the then dominant leftwing ting of the national movements. The resolution was to remain in essence the basic political and economic programme of the Congress in later years.
Write a critical note on: “Gandhiji’s role in solving the communal problem.” [1981, 20m]
The struggle in South Africa created a new image of Gandhi that he was the leader of Indian people and not of any region or religious community.
Through technique of Satyagraha, Gandhi succeeded in controlling the mass movements.
CDM - dominant section in the peasantry and the business groups found the Gandhian non-violent method convenient because they feared to lose if political struggle turned into uninhibited and violent social revolution.
Gandhi brought different sections and classes by society together against the British Rule.
It was by taking up regional issues that he emerged as a national leader. It is necessary to mention that there have always been strong differences of opinion on the relevance of Gandhi’s ideology. But the fact remains that his ideas deeply influenced the course of our struggle against the British rule and determined its major thrust and direction.
Gandhiji, dissatisfied with which offer, decided to launch the Individual Satyagraha? August Offer 1940 that did not bear a good enough constitutional promise for India.
During the course of the Second World War in order to secure the cooperation of the Indians, the British Government made the ‘August Offer’. The August Offer envisaged that after the War a representative body of Indians would be set up to frame the new Constitution.
Indian's demanded 'Immediate transfer of power', Offer was: 'Grant of dominion status' - far below expectations.
So, JLN: "As dead as doornail"; MKG: "Widened the gulf of distrust between Indian Nationalists and Br Government". Mark of protest - Individual Satyagraha.
Acharya Vinoba Bhave was the first to offer Satyagraha and he was sentenced to three months imprisonment. Jawaharlal Nehru was the second Satyagrahi and imprisoned for four months. The individual Satyagraha continued for nearly 15 months.
Bhulabhai Desai, leader of Congress party in Central Legislative Assembly met Liaqat Ali Khan, deputy leader of Muslim league. Both came up with draft proposal for the formation of interim government at the centre consisting of:
An equal number of persons nominated by Congress and League in the central legislature.
20% seats reserved for minorities.
The pact was drafted before Wavell plan negotiations began in 1945.
It was the CR formula which endorsed the idea of plebiscite in Muslim majority areas and not Desai Liaqat Pact.
British government recognized the "Right of Dominion" for India for the first time under? Cripps Mission, 1942.
Under the Cripps Mission, Indians were given full liberty to frame a constitution for themselves after fulfilling certain British obligations.
The Viceroy was to discuss with Indian leaders in deciding the principles on which the new constitution was to be based. For the first time an amount of mist was reposed in the Indians. The scheme was calculated to please the Congress, Indian states and Muslim league at the same time.
“The Cripps Mission gave India ‚a post-dated cheque.” Comment. [1982, 20m]
Cripps mission was sent to India in March 1942, when British were compelled by international pressures [Nazi attack USSR, Japan enters] to seek an amicable settlement with India, as the Second World War conditions were unfavourable for the allies.
Gandhiji called the Cripps Proposals as Post Date Cheque on a crashing bank because of their future promises to India.
The proposal includes –
Dominion status to be given to India immediately after the world war. It would be free to decide its relations with Commonwealth and to participate in UN.
Constitution making body would be set up immediately after the war, with members partly elected from British India and partly nominated by princes.
The British would accept new Constitution on two conditions
Any province not willing to join will have separate constitution and will form separate Union.
A treaty would be signed for transfer of power.
In the meantime, Defence would be under control of British government itself. Governor General's powers would remain intact.
The proposals made failed to satisfy Indian Nationalists because -
It just offered Dominion Status instead of complete Independence.
Right of provinces to secede went against the principle of national unity.
Representation of states by nominees and not by elected representatives was also objected.
Muslim League criticized the idea of single Indian Union.
August Offer already included the provision of Dominion Status which was rejected by the nationalists. Cripps Mission did not offer anything new.
The Indian demands of responsible government with full powers, control over defence and military, were not satisfied in the proposal.
Also the granted provisions could only be enjoyed only after the Second World War.
Thus, the Mission failed as all the Indian Parties rejected the proposal. However, it legitimized the demand for Pakistan through the ‘Local Option Clause’ of Cripps mission; thus strengthening Communalism.
Sir Stafford Cripps returned home leaving behind a more embittered Indian masses whose frustration was evident during the QIM which was launched after the Cripps mission.
"The whole plan with which the name of Cripps came to be inextricably associated smelt more of a sop offered to Indian political leaders, in order to bring about active participation in the war effort on the part of all sections of the population, than a genuine attempt to solve the Indian impasse." Do you agree with the statement? Give your views.
Comment is in the context of Cripps plan.
Circumstances in which Cripps came - entry of Japan in WW II - gain support of Indians; JP- SE Asia, looming at doors of India.
Offered certain improvements over August offer but nowhere near Indian aspiration.
Cripps was instructed by Churchill not to go beyond draft structure - ATTITUDE = take it or leave it. So Cripps plan failed.
“In the summer of 1942 Gandhi was in a strange and uniquely militant mood.” Comment. [2003, 20m]
Britain and France joined together to placate Hitler.
The Government of India immediately joined the war without consulting the National Congress or the elected members of the central legislature. While Congress was in full sympathy with the victims of fascist aggression, and was willing to help the forces of democracy in their struggle against fascism. So congress demanded freedom to participate actively in the struggle.
The British government refused to accept this demand and tried to pit the religious minorities and princes against the Congress. The Congress therefore asked its ministers to resign.. In October, 1940 Gandhi gave the call for a limited Satyagraha.
Vinoba Bhave was the first to offer Satyagraha. By 15 May 1941, more than 25,000 Satyagrahi’s had been jailed. In the East, Japan was growing and occupied Rangoon in March 1942 and was moving towards India and the spectre of Japanese conquest began to haunt the people and their leaders.
In the meantime British Government desperately wanted the active cooperation of Indians in the war effort. To secure this cooperation it sent to India in March 1942 a mission headed by a Cabinet Minister, Sir Stafford Cripps, who was earlier the strong supporter of Indian National Movement.
Even though Cripps declared that the aim of British Policy in India was "the earliest possible realization of self-government in India", detailed negotiations between him and the Congress leaders broke down. The British government refused to accept the Congress demand for the immediate transfer of effective power to Indians.
The failure of Cripps Mission embittered the people of India. The period from April to August 1942 was one of the daily heightening tensions, with Gandhiji becoming more and more militant as Japanese forces moved towards India.
The congress now decided to take active steps of compel the British to accept the Indian demand for independence. The All India Congress Committee met at Bombay on 8 August 1942. It passed a famous 'Quit India' Resolution and proposed the starting of a nonviolent mass struggle under Gandhiji's leadership to achieve this aim. Addressing the Congress delegates on the night of 8 August he delivered a fiery speech and gave a slogan, "Do or Die".
“The Simla Conference (1945) afforded the last opportunity of the forces of nationalism to fight a reargued action to preserve the integrity of the country and when the battle was lost, the waves of communalism quickly engulfed it.” Comment. [1988, 20m] {wavell p}
Although the war in Europe came to an end in May 1945, the Japanese threat still remained. Indian National Army reached Kohima. Thus, the Conservative government in Britain led by Churchill was keen to reach a solution over the constitutional question in India. Thus, Lord Wavell called an All Party conference at Shimla and proposed his plan which had following features -
With exception of GG and CiC all members of Executive Council were to be Indians.
Hindus and Muslims were to have equal representation.
The reconstructed council was to function like an interim government.
Representatives of different parties were to submit a joint list to the viceroy for nominations to the executive council.
But the Muslim League objected to this proposal. Jinnah claimed for ML an exclusive right to nominate all members of the cabinet. Congress refused to accept this as it would reduce Congress as a party only of Hindus. Congress insisted on its right to include members of all communities among its nominees. Wavell, therefore, called off the meeting.
Wavell plan offered a chance to form a coalition government and thus to preserve the integrity of the country. After the failure of Wavell plan, partition seemed more evident. After this the forces of communalism became stronger -
Great Calcutta Killing - on the Direct Action Day, 16 August 1946, the Muslim crown on their way back began to attack Hindus and their properties. The Hindu fought back and this led to killing of around 4000 people.
As a chain reaction to Calcutta carnage, riots broke out in Chittagong, Dacca, Mymensingh and Barisal. But the worst came in October in the districts of Noakhali and Tippera.
Not only Bengal but the entire North Indian belt was experiencing communal polarisation. Both the Hindu and Muslim fundamentalist organisation became militant.
Riots began in Bombay from 1 September, in Bihar from 25th October and in Garhmuktehwar in October.
Pathan tribesmen, instigated by local pirs, began to attack local Hindus and Sikhs from December 1946 in Dera Ismail Khan and Tonk.
Thus, gradually the whole of Indian subcontinent was engulfed by this fire of communalism. Wavell plan offered that last opportunity to save our country and its people from the ruthless communalism. But that opportunity was lost and that unleashed the forces of communalism which finally led to Partition.
Why is the “Cabinet” Mission (1946) ‘so known’?
After the Second World War, Lord Atlee, British PM, made a historic announcement in which the right to self-determination and the framing of a Constitution for India were conceded. Consequently, three members of the British Cabinet - Pathick Lawrence, Sir Stafford Cripps and A. V. Alexander - were sent to India. This is known as the Cabinet Mission of 1946. All members were British.
What plan for solution of the constitutional problem did the Cabinet Mission put forward?
A Provision was made for three groups of provinces to possess their separate constitutions.
The Cabinet Mission also proposed the formation of a Union of India, comprising both the British India and the Princely States.
The Union would remain in charge of only foreign affairs, defence and communications leaving the residuary powers to be vested in the provinces.
A proposal was envisaged for setting up an Interim Government, which would remain in office till a new government was elected on the basis of the new Constitution framed by the Constituent Assembly.
Both the Muslim League and the Congress accepted the plan.
“… instead of rejecting the plan (Cabinet Mission Plan), they (the Congress Leadership) resorted to a half-baked legalistic stratagem to reserve their position on its long-term arrangements and accepted its short-term provisions.” Critically examine.20 marks
The statement tries to assert the author’s views on the cabinet mission plan and its acceptance by the congress leaders.
Before analyzing the statement, it become necessary to brief about the long term and short term plan of the mission and the congress stand on them.
The long term plan of the Mission was to create a three tier structure of a loose federal government for the union of India including both the provinces and the princely states, with union govt. at the top, incharge of defense, communication and foreign affairs. They proposed a strong provincial govt. with residual powers in its own hand.
The short term plan, on the other hand, was to create an interim government with Congress and Muslim league on board.
Historians here have time and again pointed out that despite having its reservation on long term plan, congress working committee first approved of the plan and then Nehru retracted from the same by announcing that Congress has agreed to nothing but participation in the constituent assembly. The short term provisions of forming ministry however were accepted. It is then asserted that congress was in much hurry to get the power into its own hand even at the cost of increasing religious polarization.
However, the factor is not entirely true. With the situation at Bengal and Punjab, with increasing religious tolerance, the civil war like conditions were prevailed. Also, without forming the constituent assembly, the transfer was power was not possible as made clear by the mission.
Hence, it is in this light, that congress despite its disregard for the long term federation, accepted the short term plan to form interim govt. and later constituent assembly.
“The Cabinet Mission Plan‚ seemed to open an avenue for the reconciliation of a united India with Muslim autonomy.” Comment. [1983, 20m]
Britain's PM Clement Atlee announced on February 19, 1946 the dispatch of the Mission of three Cabinet Ministers - the Secretary of State for India, Pethic Lawrence, President of the Board of Trade, Sir Stafford Cripps, and the Lord of Admiralty, A.V. Alexander. The announcement was accompanied by a statement of the terms of reference of the Mission "to promote in conjunction with the leaders of Indian opinion, the early realization of full self-Government in India". The Cabinet Mission arrived in India in March 1946.
While making policy statement of the Cabinet Mission Plan, PM made a statement related to the question of minority: "We are mindful of the rights of the minorities and the minorities should be able to live free from fear on the other hand we cannot allow a minority to place their veto on the advance of the majority."
The Cabinet Mission rejected the demand for Pakistan on several grounds:
The Cabinet Mission argued that a separate sovereign state of Pakistan would not solve the communal problem of Pakistan because the percentage of non-Muslims living in the NW Zone of Pakistan would be 37.93% and those living in NE zone 48.31% of the total population.
There was no justification for including in Pakistan the predominantly non-Muslim districts of Bengal, Assam and the Punjab. According to them, every argument that could be used in favour of Pakistan could equally be used in favour of the exclusion of non-Muslims areas from Pakistan.
The Mission also considered whether a smaller Pakistan, involving a division of the Punjab and Bengal was possible. The objection to this option was that it would be against the wishes and interest of a large section of inhabitants of these provinces and that in the West it would divide the Sikh community into two.
These objections against the division of the country were further reinforced by administrative, economic and military considerations. For example, the communication system had been organized on an all-India basis; its break up would seriously hurt both the parts of country. The division of armed forces was even more difficult.
The Princely States would find it difficult to join one or the other Union.
There is the geographical fact that the two halves of the proposed Pakistan State are separated by some 700 miles and communication between them both in war and peace would be dependent on the goodwill of Hindustan.
In its Declaration of May 16, Cabinet Mission put forward the following proposals which seemed to open an avenue for the reconciliation of a United India with Muslim autonomy (Recommendations for the future constitution had elements of united India with Muslim autonomy):
There should be a Union of India, embracing both British India and the states, which would deal with Foreign Affairs, Defense, and communications, and would have the power necessary to raise finance required for these subjects.
The Union should have an Executive and Legislature constituted from British Indian and state representatives. Any question raising a major communal issue in the Legislature should require for this decision a majority of their representatives present and voting of the two major communities as well as a majority of all members present and voting.
The provinces would enjoy full autonomy, for all subjects other than the Union subjects and all residuary powers should vest in the provinces.
The provinces should be free to form groups with executives and Legislatures and each group could determine the provincial subjects to be taken in common.
The six Hindu majority provinces viz., Madras, Bombay, C.P, UP, Bihar and Orissa would form Group A. The Muslim majority provinces in the north-west (the Punjab, the NWFP, Sind) would form Group B. Bengal and Assam would form Group C.
The full autonomy of the provinces and the provision for grouping were meant to give the Muslim League if not the form, the ''substance of Pakistan'. It was obvious that Group B and Group C would be under absolute control of the Muslims.
Cabinet Mission Plan was ambivalent on whether the grouping was compulsory or not. The Muslim League took the compulsory grouping of provinces to be the corner-stone of the whole edifice of these proposals and would even talk or think of a compromise on that issue. But the Congress thought that the making of groups was optional for the provinces, and the later was free to join or not to join any group. Finally, however, the British Government decided in favour of the League's view on this point.
Proposals for the Constitution-making Machinery:
The plan also made provision for a constitution-making Assembly. The provinces were to send their representatives in the Constituent Assembly on the basis of their population. Roughly, one representative was to be sent for every one million people. The seats allocated to each province were to be divided into three sections - General (210), Muslim (78) and Sikh (4). The elected members of the communities in the Provincial Assemblies were to elect their representatives to the Constituent Assembly.
Thus the Constituent Assembly formed would be divided into three sections: Section A - Hindu majority regions; Section B - NW Muslim majority region; Section C - NE Muslim majority region.
These sections would settle provincial constitutions of the provinces included in the section and also decide whether any group constitution should be set up. The provinces would have the right to opt out of a group after the first election under the new constitution.
The constitution of the Union and the groups should contain a provision whereby any province could, by a majority vote of its legislative Assembly, call for a consideration of the terms of the Constitution after an initial period of ten years and at ten-yearly intervals thereafter.
<<<Firstly, they rejected the Muslim League’s demand for Pakistan on various grounds. The establishment of Pakistan would not solve the problem of communal minorities. Also, disintegrating the transportation, postal and telegraph systems and dividing the armed forces of India would be injurious. So the mission suggested that there should be one central government covering atleast some specified subjects.
The part of the proposals concerned with province-wise grouping was interpreted differently. Muslim League took the compulsory grouping of the provinces to be the corner-stone of the whole edifice of these proposals and would not even think of a compromise on that issue. Congress on the other hand thought that making of groups was optional for the provinces. Finally, the mission decided in favour of the League’s view.
With some reservations, the cabinet mission was accepted by Muslim League and Congress.>>>
"Mountbatten's task was therefore, merely to work out details and effect the partition, demanded by the League and accepted by both British Government and the Congress, and this the Viceroy moved commandingly to perform." Comment.
The Br PM Clement Atlee made an announcement on 20th Feb 1947 that the date for Br withdrawal from India was fixed as 30th June 1948 and a new viceroy was appointed, Lord Mountbatten. Thus, Mountbatten had clear cut directives from Br government to explore the options of unity and division till October 1947. Mountbatten soon found out that Cabinet Mission Plan was a dead horse and that Jinnah was stuck on his demand for a separate sovereign state for Muslims.
The Br could keep India united only through positive intervention which included putting down communal elements with a firm hand, But they chose an easy way out. They preferred to woo both sides so that they both could be Britain's ally. Mountbatten tried to meet the demands of both the Congress and League which resulted in partition. The main provisions of Mountbatten's Plan were -
Punjab and Bengal would decide for partition through voting in their respective legislative assemblies.
Sindh would take its own decision.
Referendum in NWFP and Sylhet district of Bengal would decide their fate.
In case of partition, two dominions and two constituent assemblies would be created.
Independence for princely states ruled out, they would join either India or Pakistan.
A boundary commission would be set up if partition was to be effected.
Freedom would come on August 15, 1947.
Mountbatten's plan met the League's demand by creating Pakistan and at same time it also took Congress' position in account by making that Pakistan as small as possible and retained maximum unity. Thus, Mountbatten did his task of working out the details and effecting the partition. However, the speed with which it was done made the whole partition even more disastrous.
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