Contact with outside world; Growth of urban centres, economy, coinage, Development of religions, Mahayana, Social conditions; Art, architecture, culture, literature and science.
4. Write a brief essay on: “Buddhist writing in Sanskrit in the post-Maurya period.” [1993, 20m] |
9. Explain as to how the early Buddhist Stupa art, while using folk motifs and narratives and common cultural symbols, succeeded in transforming these themes for expounding the Buddhist ideals. [2013, 20m] |
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Write a short essay on “Indian participation in the silk trade through Central Asia.” [1990, 20m]
On the basis of coins and literary evidence historians have deduced that trade in India expanded rapidly between 200 BC and 300AD. Indian participation in silk route through Central Asia was one of the main reasons.
Factors were many:
Political factors -
Trade between Holy Roman Empire (HRE) and HAN empire of China - Roman glass was craved by Chinese rulers and Chinese silk was famed world over. But Chinese exported Silk through India to Rome because there was tussle between Parthians in north west and HRE. Parthians prevented direct trade and hence opportunity for Indian traders in silk trade.
Indian state (Mauryas, Shakas, Kushanas) also promoted this trade because it was additional income to the treasury in addition to taxes from agriculture.
Urbanisation and Guilds -
From 6th C BC there was formation of different Janapadas. Agricultural surplus led to large scale urbanisation. This led to imperial city establishments and demand for luxurious goods such as Chinese Silk. Surplus also meant development of guilds/traders who actively participated in this trade.
Religious Factor -
Both Jainism and Buddhism promoted accumulation of wealth. This encouraged Vaishyas to get involved in foreign silk trade. This trade was advantageous for Buddhist Sangha also which were established along trade route.
Geographical factors -
Presence of inland navigation (provided by Ganga river system) facilitated easy transportation of goods. Uttarapatha and Dakshinapatha continued to be used in central Asian Trade which was also helped by presence of passes in Himalayas through Central Asia.
Role of Agriculture -
Indian spices, cotton, jute was craved by the Chinese who exchanged silk in return.
All the above factors enabled India to actively trade with Central Asia.
Brief out the salient features of the religious development in the Post-Maurya period. How was contemporary art influenced by it? [1988, 60m]
The coming of foreign rulers affected political and social milieu and religious practices of the time.
Formative phase of Hindu Pantheons - Some of the deities who became popular now were known from Vedic literature but during this period emerged as foci of devotion as powerful supreme deities whose images were installed and worshipped in temples and homes. Eg: BAUDHAYANA GRIHYASUTRA mentions about worship of images.
Several cults lost their importance - Cults of Yakshas and Yakshis, Nagas no doubt continued to exist but they lost importance. Stone and terracotta sculpture from Mathura clearly indicate that Yakshas and Nagas were being pushed to margins by gods and goddesses of the Brahmanical tradition. The story of Krishna subduing Kaliya Naga can be interpreted as an allegorical reference to the ultimate victory of Vishnuism over the popular Naga cult.
Rise of New Brahmanical sectarian cults - Shiva, Vishnu, Durga (Shakti cult). Brahmanical cults diversified during this period to incorporate various new elements brought by the foreign rulers, into its fold.
Emergence of monolatory - Polytheism simple refers to belief in many gods but monolatory means the belief in a supreme god without denying existence of other gods. This is also evident from the fact that shrines dedicated to one deity often had sculptural representations of other deities as well.
Continuing importance of Vedic rituals - during 200BC to 300 CE there are evidences - Rulers like Pusyamitra Sunga and certain Satavahana and Ikshvaku kings claimed to have performed Vedic sacrifices.
Emergence of Mahayana Buddhism - Fourth Buddhist council was held during the time of Kanishka which led to emergence of Mahayana. The highest goal in older Buddhism was the attainment of nirvana and becoming an arhat but Mahayana emphasised on attaining brotherhood and refraining from taking the final step into Nirvana, rather choosing to help others achieve this goal.
Changes in Jainism - It is difficult to date the schism within Jainism. Digambara tradition explains the schism by referring to southward migration of Jain monks in wake of impending famine. The northern monks led by Sthulabhadra had codified the canon. They had also started wearing clothes which the southerners thought unacceptable. Plenty of Jaina images belonging to 200 BC are found from various sites.
These religious developments got manifested into art:
Early Hindu temples - revealed by archaeological excavations. For instance, the remains of what had been a Vishnu temple in the vicinity of 2nd C BC Heliodorus pillar in Vidisha. Remains of Apsidal temple in Atranjikhera. A Gaja-Lakshmi plaque was found from Atranjikhera temple showing two elephants sprinkling water over the head of Goddess from their upraised trunks.
Buddhist Structures - Chaityas or Stupas or dwellings for monks.
Stupas of Central India - Sanchi and Barhut.
Stupas of AP - Amravati, Nagarjunakonda. Some had solid brick or stone construction. The body of others consisted of a spoked-wheel plan - this related to key Buddhist feature - the Chakra. Another notable feature was that there were five free standing pillars known as AYAKA PILLARS on a raised platform at the four cardinal points - represent important events in Buddha's life.
Stupa Monasteries of North West - have both Indian and Hellenistic features. Unlike the stupas of Central India these had a tower like appearance with sculptural decorations at base and dome. These decorations included pilasters, niches and different kinds of arches. The capitals of the pilasters framing the niches seem to have been inspired from Carnithian capitals while the Chaitya arches were an Indian feature.
Buddhist caves in the Western Ghat - These can be dated between 100 BC and 200CE. In these caves a rectangular hall led to a round stupa chamber with a narrow circumambulatory passage. But in the next stage two rows of pillars were introduced, following the line of the walls and extending into the apse. Eg: Caves at Nashik, Kanheri, Karle etc.
Jain caves at Khandagiri and Udaygiri - The Hatigumpha inscription connects these caves to Chedi dynasty of Kalinga and dates them to 1st Century BC. With a few exceptions, they are not high enough to permit a man to stand up. They are also very narrow so that person lying down would not have been able to stretch out fully. The interior of the walls was plain but outer façade and brackets sometime had carvings.
Three school of sculptures developed during this period. Gandhara, Mathura, Amaravati.
Write a short essay on: “The architectural and artistic features of the great stupa at Sanchi” [1997, 20m]
In central India, the surface of Stupa was not embellished with sculptures. Sculptural decoration was reserved for railings and gateways. The shape of gateways suggest that they were stone renditions of wooden prototypes. Various scenes from the Buddha's life were carved on the gateways. Sculptural representation of Jataka stories are also found.
Sanchi in Madhya Pradesh, even though not directly related to Buddha’s life can be seen as a site of rise, flowering and gradual fall of Buddhism in central India from the period 3rd century B.C to 12th century C.E. The following observations made from archaeological studies held at Sanchi recently points to this.
King Ashoka choose Sanchi as a site for constructing Mahasthupa of Buddha. The same level of floors of Maha stupa and Asoka’s pillar at Sanchi and similarities in mirror like finishing of sandstone umbrella structure of Mahasthupa and Ashoka pillar substantiates this.
After Ashoka, Sunga kingdom ruled the area and at that time two more stupas were built and balustrades, stairways, harmika etc were built to mahastupa. This shows that the pro-Hindu Sunga kingdom harmonically co-existed with Buddhists.
Then the area fell under the control of Satvahanas kingdom and carved gateways were constructed to the stupa during this period. Carvings on the gateway says that it was a gift to Satakarni II, a Satvahanas ruler.
From Satvahanas Sanchi fell under Saka-Kshatraps and later conquered by Gupta Empire. The illustrations on the balustrade of stupa1 says about this change of power.
During Gupta empire local art flourished in Sanchi and there are many pictures of Buddha seated in canopies drawn on stupa1 to support this.
After Gupta empire there was the fall of Buddhism in Sanchi and reasons may be the strengthening of Brahmanism as indicated by several images of Vishnu, Ganga and mahishasuramardhini from these sites.
Thus the architecture and sculpture on Sanchi during the period of various kingdoms gives an idea about how Buddhism rose during Ashoka kingdom and its flowering during Gupta Empire and its fall by the end of 12th century C.E.
“The centuries between c. 200 B.C. and c. A.D. 300 constitute a landmark in the socio-religious history of India.” Analyses the proposition. [1995, 60m]
How justified are we in characterizing the post-Mauryan five centuries as the ‘Dark Period’ of Indian History? Give reasons in support of your answer. [2008, 60m]
Dark age = period of decline, degeneration, evils dominant; by colonial historians to shatter confidence, self-esteem and moral of Indians so they can by subjugated by BR.
Post Mauryan period = central authority degenerated, political fragmentation in India; India lost politico-military strength and vigor as foreign invaders [Indo-Greeks, etc] crushed Indian rulers repeatedly.
Age of remarkable progress in social, cultural, economic and political and scientific life - Charak Samhita reveals progress in field of Science; Indian steel wootz was world famous for superior quality - used in manufacture of Damascus sword. Astronomy progressed in closer contact with outside world;
Cave architecture reached climax. Art of sculpture was most remarkable as Mathura S, Gandhara S, Amaravati school flourished during this age. Stupa architecture was in most developed condition.
Philosophy - Mahayana emerged; Bhakti propounded by Bhagwatism gained popularity, revitalisation => emergence of Vaishnavism in 4th C.
Coinage witnessed remarkable progress (Gold).
Sangam literature was composed now. Buddhist literature flourished as revealed by Asvaghosa, Nagarjuna and Visvamitra.
For first time, State formation witnessed in SI as revealed by references in Sangam literature - Chola, Chera, Pandya.
Though Indo-Greek, Kushana came from outside but they became Indian once they put their feet on Indian soil. They rules over extensive empire covering Iran, Central Asia and China with capital in India.
Buddhism moved into Tibet.
Cultural integration of N & S I occurred now => Vedic culture moved into peninsular and Process of cultural assimilation commenced between two.
Amartya Sen: roots of flowering of Indian Science and Mathematics that occurred in and around Gupta Period can be intellectually associated with persistent expressions of heterodoxies which pre-existed these contributions.
Sakas and Kushans added new ingredients to Indian culture and enriched it immensely. How?
They settled in India for good and completely identified themselves with its culture. Since they did not have their script, language or religion, they adopted these elements of culture from India.
They introduced better cavalry and the use of the riding horse on a large scale. They made common the use of reins and saddles, which appear in the Buddhist sculptures of the second and third centuries AD.
They introduced turban, tunic, trousers, and heavy long coat. Even now the Afghans and Punjabis wear turbans, and the sherwani is a successor of the long coat. The Central Asians also brought in cap, helmet and boots which were used by warriors.
They strengthened the idea of the divine origin of kingship. The Kushana kings were called sons of god.
They also introduced the satrap system of government. The empire was divided into numerous satraps, and each satrap was placed under the rule of a satrap.
Some other practices such as hereditary dual rule, two kings ruling in the same kingdom at one and the same time, were introduced.
How was identifying with a variety of deities one means of claiming high status?
This strategy is best exemplified by the Kushanas (c. first century BCE-first century CE), who ruled over a vast kingdom extending from Central Asia to northwest India. Colossal statues of Kushana rulers have been found installed in a shrine at Mat near Mathura (Uttar Pradesh). Similar statues have been found in a shrine in Afghanistan as well.
Some historians feel this indicates that the Kushanas considered themselves godlike. Many Kushana rulers also adopted the title devaputra, or “son of god”, possibly inspired by Chinese rulers who called themselves sons of heaven.
Important deities depicted on the Kushana coins are:
Greek– Herakles (Hercules), Zero (Zeus), Helios (Sun god);
Iranian– Mithra (Sun), Mao(Moon), Oado (wind), Nana (Nature goddess) etc;
Hindu– Oheso (Shiva), Ommo (consort of shiva- Uma), Vasudeva (Vishnu) etc;
Buddhist– Boddo (Buddha).
Examine the significance of the deities depicted on coins of the Kushanas. [2010, 30m]
Significance for trade | Kushanas broad cultural horizon and religious syncretism | Nature of society | Effort to gain legitimacy |
It shows that the coins were minted for the foreign trade, especially the Roman trade, and thus the coins reflected the beliefs of these trade zones.
| The variety of religious motifs is usually taken as reflecting the king’s personal religious eclecticism or his attitude of religious tolerance. It can be seen as an acknowledgement of the religious diversity within the empire and the attempts of these kings to connect themselves with the deities worshipped in and around their realm. | For example: the depiction of Buddha indicates the prevalence of the non-Brahmanical society which was characterised by new social environment i.e. trade, urbanisation, economic growth etc. The Buddhist society was mainly dominated by traders, artisans and it did not consider Varna hierarchy and provided easy access to society to the foreign ruling groups. | The depiction of Indian gods on Kushana coins is significant as it indicates the efforts of Kushanas who were basically central Asian to adopt Brahmanism and gain legitimacy. This led to the emergence of Vrat-Kshatriyas. |
However this proposition can be challenged on the grounds like the Kushana empire enjoyed a favourable balance of trade and the copper coins which were not minted for the foreign trade also exhibit this feature. | However it is difficult to explain the rarity of Buddhist emblems as all sources provide patent evidence of the affluence of Buddhism in the Kushana Empire. And more surprisingly Jaina deities and symbols are conspicuous by their absolute absence on the Kushana coins. |
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John M. Rosenfield, the author of “Dynastic arts of Kushanas”:
- He presents the explanation that these deities were the divine companions and supporters of the Kushana monarchy. He observes that the Kushana coinage, functioned as a vehicle of propaganda, directly expressing the ideology of the ruling house, and cumulatively, these coins express the “concern with material abundance and prosperity, with military triumph, with legitimacy of rule, and with the divine sanction and support of the ruling house”.
- Whatsoever would have been the motivation for introduction of such an innovation, the deities on coins reveal one of the most extraordinary facets of the Kushana dynasty.
Furnish a critical and comparative account of various schools of art in the Post -Mauryan period (c. 200 B.C. – c. 300 A.D.) [1998, 60m]
Write a short essay on: “Origins, chronology, characteristics and geographical spread of Gandhara art.” [1991, 20m]
Compare and contrast features of the Gandhara and Mathura art.
Gandhara Art | Mathura Art | Amaravati Art |
Also called Greco-Roman, Buddhist or Gandhara art – under the patronage of Indo-Greek, Indo Scythian and Kushan kings. | Under the patronage of Kushan emperors - icons of Brahmanical gods and goddesses and Buddhist and Jain divinities, which characterized the subsequent evolution of Indian art were produced experimentally. | Patronage by Satvahanas. Developed indigenous style. |
Product of the combination of Hellenistic, West Asiatic and native elements. Yet most of the images represent Buddha as seated in the typically Indian Yogic posture, a feature completely unknown to the Hellenistic tradition of art. Grey sandstone was mainly used. | Portrait studies of the Kushan emperors, together with several noblemen and women were executed during the period in the characteristic red and red-speckled sandstone of Mathura. | White marbles were used. |
Area extended from Takshila in India to the Swat Valley in Pakistan and northwards to areas in Afghanistan. | 80 miles away from Delhi, was throbbing with great artistic activity, and its workshops even catered to the outside demands for sculpture. |
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Buddha who was hitherto designated only by a symbol, was conceived in human form. | Several images of the Buddha and Bodhisattavas were produced after the earlier Yaksha types. | Sculptures related to Buddhism. |
Personified in 32 suspicious bodily signs (of Mahapurushalakshana), such as
| Buddha image is shown as –
| Buddha's images - Less emphasis on individual features. Depiction of JATAKAS. |
Relief panel showing Buddha's Great Departure is a fine example of Gandhara art of the 2nd century A.D. |
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3rd century A.D. is the figure of a standing Bodhisattava. His right hand is shown in the gesture of protection.
All these reveal Greco-Roman influence. | Beautifully carved railing pillars which once adorned the stupa at Mathura are – Fair maidens, in gracefully flexed postures engaged in dance and music (portrayal of feminine beauty in all its sensuous charm).
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Subject-matter treated is predominantly Buddhist. |
Possible, the emergence of the image of Buddha in Gandhara and in Mathura was a parallel development. In each case, it was produced by the local artist craftsmen working in the local tradition. |
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Why did Gandhara art flourished in Kushana Empire where Buddha himself never visited the region? Also examine how Buddha is depicted in Gandhara art.
Gandhara, the region around present day Kandahar in modern Afghanistan, was a very important kingdom since the time of Mahajanapadas. | DEPICTION OF BUDDHA: |
Although Gautama Buddha never visited this region in the far north-west, his teachings were spread here later and it became a holy land of Buddhism because of –
Gandhara School of art developed during this period from a fusion of Greco-Roman and Indian style and incorporated Hellenistic forms of art. Grey sandstone was mainly used. | Represented in human form – Muscular body, with beard and moustaches, Apollonian faces (like Greek gods), long ear lobes. Standing and seated statues of Buddha and Bodhisattvas were made, and stone slabs depicted scenes from Buddha’s life. Great stress was laid on bodily features and beauty. Buddha was shown using gestures like – abhaya, dhayana, dharmachakra and bhumisparsha mudra. Curly Hairs with a knot – Ushanisha. Meditating Buddha, with half closed eyes. |
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