Syllabus:
Skankaracharya and Vedanta, Ramanuja and Vishishtadvaita, Madhva and Brahma Mimansa
Growth of Vaishnava and Saiva religions. Tamil Bhakti movement. Bhakti Saints, Impact / Role of Bhakti/Literature in the newly developing languages/Bhakti. Sufi Movement; Arrival of Islam
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Write a short essay on: “Origin of the Bhakti Movement” [2002, 20m]
Though the bhakti movement became the dominant feature of Hinduism in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, its origin can be traced to ancient Indian religious traditions. We find mention of Bhakti in the Vedas, Upanishads, the epics and the Puranas.
The Vedanta philosophy enumerates the concept of the Creator and the creation: God (Brahman or Paramatman) and soul (atma).
The other two basic principles are the doctrine of rebirth or transmigration of the soul and the theory of karma (deeds).
The ultimate object of the soul is to seek the reunion with God. When the soul escapes rebirth due to karma and merges with the universal soul (God) salvation is said to have been achieved. Salvation is variously termed as mukti, moksha or nirvana.
What are the manifestations of Tamil devotional cults? How do you account for their growth between C. 750 and C. 1200 CE? [2008, 60m]
The penetration of Northern culture into South resulted in some of the patterns, ideas and institutions of mark being assimilated, whereas others were rejected or modified. The Tamil devotional cult was one result of interaction of north and south.
The Theism of Bhagvata cult and of Tamil cult had similar origins (devotional worship).
The concept of compassionate God was due to the influence of Buddhism and Christian ideas.
Resistance to the Aryanization of the region - Tamil saints ignored caste, were widely supported by ordinary people, used only popular language, Tamil.
The Vedic gods were either denied or ignored, the emphasis was on relationship involved in worship, the relationship between man and God and not on object of worship.
Impact of Jainism and Buddhism - In social approach, Cult rejected established order of society as stratified in caste structure and received support from lower castes.
Jainism and Buddhism gradually gave way to new form of religious worship ,the devotional cults of Tamil saints who were critical of it and preached love for Shiva and Vishnu, which were among the early expressions of what later came to be called as Bhakti movement.
Alvars and Nayanars: 7th to 9th C saw the emergence of new religious movements, led by the Nayanars (saints devoted to Shiva) and Alvars (saints devoted to Vishnu) who came from all castes including those considered “untouchable” like the Pulaiyar and the Panars. Compilations: Tevarams by Nayanars and Divya Prabandam by Alvars.
They drew upon the ideals of love and heroism as found in the Sangam literature.
Pandya kingdom invited the Shaivite Sambandar to release country from tightening grip of Jainism. He won in debate and converted king and subjects to Saivism. Similarly Manikkavasagar debated with Buddhists from Ceylon at Chidambaram and vanquished them.
Only woman was Andal. In her intense devotion to Vishnu, Andal dreamt of her marriage with that God.
Shankaracharya recognised the ascetic order of Hinduism based on the model of Buddhist order.
The work of poet-saints of Pandya-Pallava periods continued in the age of Cholas. Tamil hymns were gradually employed in the daily worship in temples. The rise of temple to an important place was direct result of revivalist movement.
The greatest Vaishnava saint was Ramanuja. His philosophy of Vishistadvaita reconciled devotion to personal God with philosophy of Vedanta. He was eager to spread the doctrine of Bhakti among Shudras and even among outcastes.
Nimbarka accepted doctrine of surrender and total devotion to Krishna and radha.
Thus, Tamil devotional cult resisted Jainism, Buddhism, Aryanization of the region and became a powerful force.
How did Sankaracharya seek to integrate the different religions cults in India? [1981, 20m]
Write a short essay on: “Shankaracharya’s philosophy and its impact.” [1987, 20m]
“Sankaracharya brought about a synthesis of ideas and philosophies.” Discuss the statement and analyse the historical significance of his life and thought. [1990, 60m]
Write a short essay on: “The Vedanta of Sankaracharya” [2001, 20m]
Assess the contribution of the Acharyas in the development of the ideological basis of Bhakti. [2012, 10m]
Shankaracharya | Ramanuja | Nimbaraka |
f. father of the bhakti movement and proponent of Advaita (non-dualism). Though he laid stress on gyan marga, the true knowledge as a means of attaining salvation, it was not practicable for an average man. Thus, the succeeding preachers of the Vedanta philosophy substituted it by the bhakti marga. | One of the earliest exponents (1017-1137) who hailed from modern AP. A great Vaishnava teacher, proposed Vishisht Advaita (Advaita with qualifications). Emphasized that salvation can be achieved through the bhakti marga alone. He redefined the Vedanta philosophy by laying greater stress on devotional worship to a personal God who constituted the supreme reality. | A contemporary of Ramanuja from the south established his ashram near Mathura and preached to the common people in the Gangetic valley about the dedication to God, personified by Krishna and Radha. He was proponent of Dvaitadvaita.
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Birthplace: Kaladi, near Cochin |
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Although there were many points of contact between South and North India, the spread of the ideas of bhakti from south to north took quite a long time.
Two objectives of BM, as per AL Srivastava -
reform the Hindu religion so as to enable it to withstand the onslaught of Islamic propaganda and proselytism - SUCCEEDED => high and low among the Hindus forgot many of their prejudices and believed in the message of the reformers of the bhakti cult that all people were equal in the eyes of God
reconciliation between Hinduism and Islam and foster friendly relations between the two communities - FAILED => Neither the Turko-Afghan rulers nor the Muslim public accepted the Rama-Sita or Radha-Krishna cult. They refused to believe that Rama and Rahim, Ishwar and Allah were the names of the same God.
Ramananda was educated at Prayag and Benaras and visited the various religious places in northern India. He was a follower of Ramanuja who spread the bhakti movement in the north in 15th century. He advocated the worship of Rama and Sita in place of Vishnu. He preached through Hindi, the language of the common people in the Gangetic valley.
Guru Ravidas - nirguna sampradaya; untouchables equal rights in the society - did all such activities banned to the lower group people such as wearing Janev, dhoti, putting tilak on forehead and etc. Followers called as Ravidassia. Influence of Guru Ravidas: Babur in 1526 massacred tons of people in the belief of God. Later became great follower of Guru ji and started doing social works by supporting poor in Delhi and Agra. A spiritual Guru of the Meera Bai who was the queen of Chittoor. “Guru milya Ravidas ji dini gyan ki gutki. Chot lagi nijnam hari ki mharey hivrey khatki”. His padas, devotional songs, and other writings (around 41 verses) are mentioned in the Sikh Scriptures, Guru Granth Sahib.
Bhakti and mysticism of Lal Ded emerged as a social force in Kashmir. Comment. [2013, 10m]
Write a short essay on: “Sufi Movements” [2003, 20m]
The Islamic mysticism was known as Sufism. It emerged as a schism against the institutionalized or dogmatic creed.
Derived from the Arabic word suf meaning wool <> eastern ascetics used to wear the coarse garments prepared out of wool plus a mark of poverty. Or ṣafa which means “purity”.
Origin of Sufism:
Early Sufis, such as the woman mystic of Basra named Rabia and Mansur-al-Hallaj laid great emphasis on love as the bond between God and the individual soul.
Traced their ideas to Quran and Traditions (Hadis) of the Prophet. Later influenced by a number of ideas from Christianity, Zoroastrianism, Buddhism and Indian philosophical system of Vedanta and yoga.
Mysticism was looked upon with disfavour by the Muslim fundamentalists. As a result the Sufis were persecuted and some of them were even executed on change of heresy and blasphemy.
The Sufis gave mystic interpretations of these scriptures. However, the orthodox Muslims believed in the literal interpretation of the scriptures.
The orthodox Muslims depend upon external conduct while the Sufis seek inner purity.
The orthodox believe in blind obedience to or observance of religious rituals while the Sufis consider love to be the only means of reaching God.
The Sufis used singing and dancing, forbidden by the orthodox as means of inducing a state of ecstasy, which brought a Sufi nearer to his goal of union with God.
Write a short essay on: “Sufism in North India” [2006, 20m]
Advent of the Sufis to India: Dates back to the Arab conquest of Sindh. After the establishment of the Muslim rule in northern India, Sufis from different Muslim countries began to migrate and settle down in different parts of India.
The Silsilahs or groups: Abul Fazal gives a list of 14 orders of the Sufis, which came to India. However, only two of them, the Chisti and Suhravardi silsilahs took deep roots in the Indian soil.
The Chisti Silsilah: f. by Khwaja Abdul Chisti. Intro in India by Khwaja Muinuddin Chisti of Persia.
Shaikh Qutbuddin Bhaktiyar Kaki (d.1235) (famous Qutub Minar was named after him) and Shaikh Hamiduddin (d. 1276). Shaikh Fariduddin Ganj-i-Shakar (known as Baba Farid) was a disciple of Bhaktiyar Kaki. Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya (1236-1325) - witnessed the reign of seven sultans of Delhi, he never visited the courts of any one of them; practiced celibacy; adopted yogic breathing exercises. His successor was Shaikh Nasiruddin Chiragh-i-Delhi. Shaikh Salim Chisti (cave dwelling at Sikri) – Akbar’s spiritual guide.
Liberal – adopted many Hindu customs and ceremonies. Service to mankind. Believers in pantheistic monism, which had its earliest exposition in the Upanishad of the Hindus. As a result many Hindus felt closer to the Chisti silsilah. The Chisti silsilah centered on Ajmer and gradually spread to other parts of Rajasthan, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Bengal, Orissa and Deccan. The Suhravardi silsilah was confined to Sindh, Multan and the Punjab.
The Suhravardi Silsilah: f. by Shihabuddin Suhravardi (d. 1234) of Baghdad.
Did not believe in leading a life of poverty and excessive austerity and self-mortification. Confined mostly to the upper strata of the Muslim society. Contemporary historian Ziauddin Barani records that, the Suhravardi saint Syed Nuruddin Mubarak Ghaznavi advised Iltutmish to follow a policy of discrimination and persecution against the Hindus.
Some were very liberal and broadminded and were held in deep respect by the Hindus. The devotion of the Hindus of Bengal to Shaikh Jalauddin Tabrizi may be estimated from Sekha Subhodaya, a Sanskrit treatise, which includes all the legends about the saint prevalent among the Hindus.
“Sufis and medieval mystic saints failed to modify either the religious ideas and practices or the outward structure of Islamic/Hindu societies to any appreciable extent.” Comment for/against. [2015, 10m]
Write a short essay on: “The Sufi Movement and its role in promoting communal harmony” [2000, 20m]
In the fourteenth century the influence of the Sufis declined. This was due to the doctrinal differences between different Sufi orders and assertion of Islamic orthodoxy. However, the Sufis played an important role in spreading the Muslim culture among the masses in various parts of the country.
Impact/Role of Sufi Movement in promoting communal harmony:
Stressed the essential unity between different religions and showed an attitude of toleration towards other religions and tried to bring about reconciliation between the Hindus and the Muslims.
The ideas of the brotherhood of Islam and equality among its adherents appealed to the low castes among the Hindus. It led to large-scale conversions.
The Sufis emphasized the unity of God and superiority of the path of devotion over rituals, ceremonies, pilgrimages and fasts.
The liberal and tolerant attitude adopted by Akbar and his successors made the Sufi literature and thought popular among the Hindu intellectuals.
The Sufi doctrine of Universal Brotherhood (sulh-i-kul) was adopted by Akbar in his attempt to establish a national state in India.
promoted a feeling of religious toleration between the Hindus and Muslims and became instrumental in maintaining the social equilibrium of the medieval society.
The healthy religious atmosphere created by the Sufi movements enabled Akbar to adopt a broader outlook in religious matters culminating in the foundation of a syncretic religion Din-i-Ilahi.
Write a short essay on: “Significance of the Bhakti Movement” [1987, 20m]
Impact of the Sufi and Bhakti Movements on life and thought of the common people:
challenged the sanctity of ancient Indian scriptures and Sanskrit language, which had become unintelligible to the masses.
preached through vernaculars and in the local dialects of the people => development of vernacular languages
theme of bhakti and Sufi enriched the literature in these languages.
Inspired Shivaji to establish the Swarajya.
Foundation of Sikhism was one of the results of the bhakti movement.
Evaluate the impact of the Sufi and Bhakti Movements on vernacular languages and life and thought of the common people. [2001, 60m]
Mahabharata and Ramayana received rebirth in the new languages. In turn these epics provided substance and style to the new languages too.
Kamban in Tamil, Sarala Das in Oriya, Krittibhasa Ojha in Bengali, Ezhuttachan in Malyalam, Tulsidas in Hindi and Nannaya in Telugu are well known legions.
South India: Tamil, Telugu and Kannada | North India: Punjabi, Hindi, Urdu | Western India: Rajasthani, Gujarati | Eastern India: Bengali, Oriya, Assamese and Maithili |
Tamil: Religious works Alvar saints in Tamil, songs of love and devotion, are compiled as Divya Prabandham. Telugu: Earliest major work to survive is the Telugu Mahabharata produced by three successive poets, Nannaya, Tikkana and Erra Pragada. Vaishnavism influenced next stage of development of Telugu literature in reign of Krishna Deva Raya. Kannada: Basava was a 12th century Kannada poet in the Shaivite bhakti movement, Lingayat. | Punjabi: Baba Farid (Sufi poet) - pioneer; Guru Nanak, later Sikh Gurus enrichment; Guru Arjun Dev compiled the Adi Granth (1604) - contains works of Kabir, Farid, Namdev, Surdas, Mirabai and Ravidas. Guru Gobind Singh’s writings are included in the Dasam Granth. Hindi: Amir Khusro, 13th C wrote poetry in Hindavi, Punjabi and Persian. Tulsidasa (wrote Ramcharitamanas), Surdas (wrote Sur-Sagar); Dadu Dayal (16th C) songs in brajbhasha; Malik Muhammad Jaisi (Padmavati), Nur Muhammad (Indravati), Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan (dohas like Rahim Dohavali). |
| Bengali: Chaitanya and the poet Chandidasa, to spread their ideas of Vaishnavism, used Bengali. Later Mirza Hussein Ali composed songs in Bengali in honor of Goddess Kali.
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“The tenets of Hindu and Muslim mystics were similar enough that the ground was ripe for syncretic movements involving adherents of both religious.” Elucidate. [2005, 60m] [2007, 60m]
There were various similarities in the teachings of these mystics which brought about a syncretic movement.
Oneness with God. Ultimate aim to achieve that. Both believed in Monotheism.
Role of Masters. Both emphasised importance of knowledge - by Gurus or Pirs who could guide the individual. From here came 'PIR-MURID' and 'GURU-SHISHYA' tradition.
No discrimination. Anyone could come in the Sufi Khanqah or become shishya of Bhakti saints.
Discarded rituals of orthodox sects. Bhakti S didn't believe in idol worship or sacrifices. Sufi mystics against blind faith in scriptures and performing of Namaz without understanding relevance of it.
Preached in local dialects. In form of couplets like Kabir while Sufis sang.
Music played important role. A state of ecstasy. Organised Kirtans, Sama, Qawwali.
Tried to bridge the gap between two faiths - preaching brotherhood, harmony.
Service to humanity = higher spiritual significance than ritual adherence.
Therefore, it won't be wrong to say that tenets of H and M mystics were similar enough and ground was ripe for syncretic movements involving adherents of both religions.
“The period of Delhi Sultans witnessed the emergence of Indo-Persian culture.” Discuss the statement with reference to developments m the fields of language. [1986, 60m]
Comment on: “Growth of regional languages and literature during the medieval period.” [1995, 20m]
Critically evaluate the educational development during Sultanate period. [2013, 15m]
Where, when and how did Urdu originate? [1985, 20m]
Scholars have advanced several theories to explain the origin of the Urdu language in the era following the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate.
Urdu adopted Persian writing and Persian literary custom but through incorporating the vital structure of Hindi dialects evolved an individuality of its own.
The word Urdu is of Turkish origin and means an army or camp. In its initial form, Urdu appears to have been devised as an improvised speech to enable the Persian speaking Turkish ruling class and soldiers to communicate with the regional people including Muslim converts. Though, it had not yet acquired a literary form.
This new general language took a century to acquire a concrete form and came to be described “Hindavi” through Amir Khusrau. Hindavi therefore shapes the foundation of both Hindi and Urdu. Amir Khusrau composed verses in Hindavi (using Persian writing) and therefore laid the base of Urdu literature.
Though, it was in the Deccan that Urdu first acquired a standardized literary form and came to be recognized as Dakhini throughout the 15th century. It urbanized first under the Bahmani rule and flourished in the Bijapur and Golkunda kingdoms. Gesu Daraz‟s Miraj-ul Ashiqin is the earliest work in Dakhini Urdu.
In its urbanized form, Dakhini Urdu travelled back to the north and soon became popular throughout the Mughal era. It was throughout the era of the disintegration of the Mughal Empire in the 18th century that the Urdu literature reached great heights.
Ghazals (lyrical couplets), marsia (elegy), and qasidah (ode of praise) are of Iranian origin.
Miranji Sham al-Ushshaq established Urdu as a recognized medium of Sufi narrative verse.
Sauda (1706-81) gave vigour and versatility to Urdu poetry.
Dard and Mir Taqi Mir gave maturity and class to Urdu.
Give an account of the impact of Islam on Indian culture in respect of society, religion and fine arts. [1980, 60m]
Trace influence of Islam on Indian culture and civilization. [1999, 60m]
Society - Arabs, Turks, Mughals.
Religion - Sufi
Fine Arts - Indo-Islamic, Persian elements, Sultanate, Mughals - paintings.
What role did Bhakti play in Feudalism? [Champakalakshmi]
Bhakti ideology in south India proved instrumental in order to achieve institutional permanence and socio-political dominance.
The authority though which the concept of bhakti or devotion was expressed was the temple.
The religious ideology provided an instrument for the creation of an effective space for urban forms and for determining the nature of the city and helped in the process of change.
In this period, the office of king came to be venerated and hence equated to divine power, and the Brahmanas priests acted as agents of legitimization of temporal sovereignty through divine sanction and by fabricating genealogies of divine descent.
The creation of Brahmadeya (land gifted to the Brahmans by kings) and temples was a way in which some form of divine authority was given to Kshatriyas to expand their authority.
The bhakti ideology helped in the process of enhancing the power of both the divine and sovereigns through the symbolism of the cosmos/temple/territory.
Women writers right from the days of Vedas focused on the image of women in mainstream Sanskrit literature.
Women writers. (4k BC) Ghosa, Lopamudra, Gargi, Maitreyi, Apala, Romasha Brahmavadini.
Buddhist nuns whose writings express torment of feelings for life left behind. (600BC) Mutta and Ubbiri and Mettika in Pali.
Alvar women poets who gave expression to their love for the divine. (600AD) Andal.
Sant tradition Bhakti poetess who wrote Vakhs (maxims) which are peerless gems of spiritual experience. LalDed and Habba Khatun. (from Kashmir)
The below are known for the sheer lyrical intensity and concentrated emotional appeal.
Mirabai àGujarati, Rajasthani and Hindi
Avvayyar àTamil
Akkamahadevi à Kannada
Their writings tell - about the social conditions prevailing at that time and the position of women at home and in society.
Behind their mysticism and metaphysics - Divine sadness. They turned every wound inflicted by life into poem.
Bhakti the only aspect of medieval literature? No. Love Ballads and Heroic Poetry = Kissa and Var in Punjabi. Eg: Hir Ranjha by Warris Shah. Najabat’s var of Nadir Shah. Var is the most popular form of Punjabi poetry, music and drama all rolled into one. Secular poetry of Sringara (erotic sentiment) by Bihari Lal and Keshav Das.
Janabai was from Maharashtra and was influenced by teachings of Namdev. Awakened Shudras and Women for their rights.
Bahina disciple of Tukaram. She did not leave marriage yet devoted to Bhakti alongside. She became idol for women who were hesitating breaking social norms but wanted to devote herself to Bhakti.
A 12th-century philosopher, Basavanna - find installed in the Parliament of India.
He rejected gender or social discrimination, superstitions and rituals such as the wearing of sacred thread, but introduced Ishtalinga necklace, with an image of the Shiva Linga, to every person regardless of his or her birth, to be a constant reminder of one's bhakti (devotion) to Shiva.
He spread social awareness through his poetry known as Vachanaas.
New public institution did Basavanna introduce -
He served as the chief minister of his kingdom. During his tenure as Chief Minister, he introduced
many new public institutions like Anubhava Mantapa (“hall of spiritual experience”) that would facilitate men and women from all socio-economic backgrounds to have a healthy and open discuss on various spiritual and mundane questions of life.
Two very important socio-economic principles given by Basaveshwara: – “Kayaka” (Work: Divine work) and “Dasoha” (Distrubution: Equal distribution). Kayaka is not mere a work, but it is the way of realising God. It teaches the concept of dignity of labour.
Modhera Sun Temple, Gujarat River Puspavati, buit in 1026 AD by King Bhimdev of the Solanki dynasty. The temple is in ruins after it was destroyed by Allaudin Khalji.
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