AH - Mahajanapadas, Magadha, Jainism, Buddhism

Formation of States (Mahajanapada): Republics and monarchies; Rise of urban centres; Trade routes; Economic growth; Introduction of coinage; Spread of Jainism and Buddhism; Rise of Magadha and Nandas. Iranian and Macedonian invasions and their impact.

Painted Grey Ware Sites (1000 BC to 600 BC)

Painted Grey Culture: is an Iron Age culture of the Gangetic plain and the Ghaggar-Hakra valley, lasting from roughly 1200 BCE to 600 BCE. PGW are extremely fine to touch, with a nice, smooth surface. Perhaps these were used on special occasions, for important people, and to serve special food.

BRW -> PGW -> NBPW.

PGW - special type of pottery found in the Janapadas.

• The changes in agriculture witnessed around this time are - Use of Iron ploughshare, transplantation of paddy.

Excavations at places for e.g. Hastinapura, Kurukshetra, Panipat, Tilpat, Baghpat, Mathura, and Bairat show - evidence of a pottery Painted Grey Ware (PGW) which goes back to c. 1000 BCE. This shows that these sites were inhabited around this time, and the nature of the remains suggests that the people who lived here shared a pastoral-cum-agricultural lifestyle. Excavations at Hastinapura also give evidence of a flood in the Ganga, after which the site was deserted.

Northern Black Polished Ware [NBPW] Sites (600 BC to 200 BC)

(PGW and NBPW are periods - a site can show different periods and a period can be at different sites)

Atranjikhera, Etah district of Uttar Pradesh - Prehistoric and historic excavated archeological site on the bank of the Kali Nadi, a tributeries of Ganga; Rich deposits of the PGW period and include iron objects such as spearheads, arrowheads, knives, axe, etc. In the NBPW period the use of iron tools and implements like the sickle, hoe, ploughshare clearly seen; The discovery of coins, seals, use of burnt bricks etc suggest the urban character of the site in the NBPW phase.

Hastinapur - In Puranas, as capital of Bharata. Capital of Kurus, later Vedic times. Excavation revealed PGW (an Iron Age culture) of roughly 1200 BCE to 600BCE. It was succeeded by NBPW.

16 Great States

Anga, c. Champa-nagara and Champa-pura, BIHAR - Kingdom that flourished on the eastern Indian subcontinent in the 6th century BCE until taken over by Magadha in the same century. About the middle of 6th century BC, Bimbisara, the crown prince of Magadha had killed Brahmadatta, the last independent king of Anga and seized Champa.

Assaka (Ashmaka), c. Kotilingala, TELENGANA - Banks of the Godavari River, only Mahajanapada situated to the south of the Vindhya Range. Kotilingala, Telangana was the capital of this Janapada. Corresponds to districts Nizamabad and parts of Adilabad in Telangana and Nanded, Yavatmal in Maharashtra.

Avanti, c. Ujjaini [North] Mahismati [S], MP - Vindhyas divide into two parts (Maheshwar [S] is on the north bank of the Narmada River); NBPW found their way to the northern Deccan from the Gangetic plains through Ujjain. King Pradyota of Avanti was contemporary to Buddha. Avanti was defeated by Shishunaga, the king of Magadha. During the reign of Mauryan King Bindusara, Prince Ashoka was the provincial governor of Ujjain.

Kosala, c. Ayodhya (Saket), Bank of the river Sarayu, in Faizabad district of UP - Its other [Northern] capital was at Savatthi (Sravasti), about 60 miles north of modern Ayodhya. Kosala was ultimately merged into Magadha. Mahavira, the 24th Tirthankara of Jainism taught in Kosala. Occupied since the NBPW phase (6th century BCE) - reveals brunt brick structures, terracotta ring wells, punch marked and inscribed copper coins.

Vaishali, capital of Lichhavi [VRIJJI] - Considered one of the 1st republics in Vrijji Confederacy Mahajanapada. 599 BCE, 24th Mahavira was born and brought up in Kundagrama. Ashokan Pillar with topped by single lion. Mention in accounts of Faxian (4 CE) and Xuan Zang (7 CE). Amrapalli, the great Indian courtesan, famous in folktales, Buddhist literatures, said to have become disciple of Buddha.

Tamralipti, Tamluk, WB - Important seaport and emporium of trade in eastern India. Connected to Taxila, Rajgriha, Shravasti, Pataliputra by land on one hand and to SE Asia by sea on the other. An exit point of Mauryan trade route for the South and South East. Antiquities of Chalcolithic period have been found here. Had trade contacts with Roman world.

Taxila, Rawalpindi, Pakistan - Pivotal junction of 3 major trade routes: 1st from W Asia, 2nd from NI, 3rd from C Asia. Important centre of education. Among the earliest universities of world. Not considered as university in modern sense as teachers living there may not have had official membership of particular colleges and there did not seem to have built lecture halls or residential quarters, in contrast to later U Nalanda. Charaka, Chanakya, Jivaka, Panini are related to Taxila U. In 326 BC Alexander received the submission of ruler of Taxila, Ambhi. During Ashoka's time it became a great centre of Buddhism. Then it came under Indo-Greeks, Huns.

Give an account of the republics in the pre-Maurya period. Discuss the factors which contributed to their decline. [1992, 60m]

1. Digha Nikaya, famous Buddhist text contains speeches of Buddha. It tells about the Sangh of Vajjis who –
2. Held full and frequent public assemblies. Met and acted together. Followed established rules. Respected, supported and listened to elders. Women were not held by force or captured. Chaityas (local shrines) were maintained in both towns and villages. Wise saints who followed different beliefs were respected and allowed to enter and leave the country freely.

In contrast to other Mahajanapadas –

• Rajas controlled the land and people while in Sangha people were free.
• There was one Raja but here many in themselves.
• Rules might be established by one king but here all met and decided.

Discuss the factors responsible for the emergence of urban centres in India during the period from 6th century BC to 4th C BC.

IRON is not responsible for emergence of URBAN centres here.

1. ART and Craft.
2. Indigenous knowledge of agriculture.
3. Capitals of Mahajanapadas.
4. Trade and Commerce.
5. Political
6. Economic.

Indian Geography has played an important role in shaping Indian history. Examine the truth of this statement.

1. Geography and Human life: Evolution of Indian life - safety from Siberia cold/ attacks, fertile plains, enough resources: Gangetic high density; West thinner density.
2. Geo and Political life - Biggest empires in North; Most battles in North - Panipat extensive plains, cultural assimilation.
3. Monsoon and Trade - Arabs, Cultural.
4. Metals and Magadha.
5. Role of Mountain, Rivers, Fertile Plain, Minerals, Monsoon.
6. SI, West could not have empires - lack of resources.

What role did iron play in changing their political and economic life? [1998, 60m]

Evaluate the introduction of iron technology in the development of human history of ancient India. [2011, 20m]

ROLE OF GEOGRAPHICAL FACTOR:

1. Magadha enjoyed an advantageous geographical position in the age of iron because the richest iron deposits were situated not far away from Rajgir, the earliest capital of Magadha; this enabled the Magadhan princes to equip themselves with weapons, which wore not easily available to their rivals.
2. The two capitals of Magadha, the first at Rajgir and the second at Pataliputra, were situated at very strategic points. Rajgir was surrounded by a group of five hills, and so it was rendered impregnable in those days when there were no easy means of storming citadels such as cannons. In the fifth century the Magadhan princes shifted their capital from Raigir to Pataliputra which occupied a pivotal position commanding communications on all sides.
3. Pataliputra was situated at the confluence of the Ganga, the Gandak and the Son, and a fourth river called the Sarayu.
4. Iron mines were also found in eastern MP, and were not far ‘from the kingdom of the Avantis with their capital at Ujjain. Around 500 B.C. iron was certainly forged and smelted in Ujjain making weapons of good quality. On account of this Avanti proved to be the most serious competitor of Magadha for the supremacy of north India, and Magadha took about a hundred years to subjugate Ujjain. [geography play its role in taking 100 years for Magadha to subjugate Ujjain]

Trace the rise of Magadhan imperialism up to the times of the Nandas with particular reference to its policy towards the non-monarchical state. Discuss the factors that contributed to its success. [1990, 60m]

Analyse the causes of the success of the Magadhan imperialism up to the reign of Ashoka the Great. [2001, 60m]

1. IMPERIAL AUTOCRACY - Magadha produced strong monarchies viz. BIMIBISARA, AJATHSATRU, NANDA DYNASTY who were proactive, diligent, diplomatic and who added to vibrancy of Magadhan I.
2. Magadha came into prominence under BIMBISARA. He started the policy of conquest. He annexed Anga which laid the foundation of Magadhan I.
3. BIMBISARA used matrimonial alliance as a means to strengthen his position. His first wife Kosala devi brought a Kashi village in dowry which yielded much revenue. It also ended hostility with Kosala. His second wife Chellana was a Lichhavi princes from Vaishali and his third wife Kshema was a daughter of the chief of Madra clan of Punjab.
4. Ajatshatru is famous for building Pataligrama - its strategic location strengthened the capital.
5. Udayin moved the capital to Pataliputra. Important contribution by the following rulers was in conquest of AVANTI.
6. Effective administration of Kings especially Mauryas who paid great attention to administration. Mauryan kingdom was administered according to concept of Saptanga Rajya of Kautilya which organised a robust state.
7. Society was relatively progressive. Philosophies of Buddhism and Jainism supported Magadhan I.
8. Military edge due to use of Elephants, etc.
9. Use of Matrimonial Alliance by kings like Ashoka.

Critically examine the impact of Iranian and Macedonian invasions on India.

• Iranian - PJ, Sindh; Macedonia = Alexander.
• Impact - Aramaic Script, Indian trade got boost, Political unification (by Mauryas later), Elimination of weak rulers, Cultural Assimilation - Gandhara Art.

Write what you know of the rise and spread of Buddhism before the first century A.D. [2007, 60m]

Discuss the social & economic factors for the rise of Buddhism. How far was it influenced by Upanisadic thought? [1987, 60m]

Various religious sects arose in the mid Gangetic basin during the 6th C BC. Of these sects Buddhism and Jainism became the most important ones. Different social and economic factors were responsible for the rise of these sects.

1. Varna system became more rigid during this time - Brahmans became more and more powerful while the condition of Shudras became deplorable. Varna divided society seems to have generated tension. The Kshatriyas started to react strongly against the ritualistic domination of Brahmans. It is interesting to note that both Gautam Buddha and Mahavira were Kshatriyas.
2. With the increasing diversification of economic activities Vaishyas were becoming more and more prosperous and they appear to be the chief taxpayers. With enhancing material Vaishyas started looking for societal recognition and for a religion that would uplift their status.
3. The new agricultural economy based on iron ploughshare required the use of bullocks. But the vedic practise of killing cattle indiscriminately in sacrifices posed a serious challenge.
4. This was the time which saw rise of many urban centres like Kaushambi, Vaishali, Kusinagar etc. With urbanisation mode of exchange also changed and coins came into picture. Introduction of coins further boosted trade and commerce which added to the importance of Vaishyas and increased their urge to improve social status - by challenging the Brahmanical system.
5. Other reasons for support of Vaishyas - the new sects preached non-violence which would put an end to wars and promote trade and commerce. Moreover, unlike Brahmanical texts which decried lending money on interest these religious sects had no such notions. And lastly, these sects didn't attach any importance to existing varna system.
6. Promoted Women to be part of new sects. Language was ordinary and not the Sanskrit and complex Sanskrit Literatures.
7. Simple Rituals.

Similarity between Buddhist philosophy and Upanishadic thought -

1. Both condemn priestly domination in religious life.
2. Upanishads rejected rituals and sacrifices and similarly Buddhism condemned it.
3. Both gave philosophy of ahimsa, non-violence.
4. Upanishads emphasised on path of knowledge for salvation. Gautam Buddha also gave importance to knowledge.

However, they had differences as well -

• Upanishads believed in existence of God. Buddha remained silent when asked about GOD.
• Concepts related to soul form the core of Upanishads. But Buddhism denies the existence of soul.
• Meaning of salvation is different. In Upanishads it is MOKSHA while in BUDDHISM it is NIRVANA.
• Both had their unique features. One introduced the idea of 'Brahman' and 'Atman' while another gave the 8-Fold path and four noble truths.

Vajrayana: 

In this the practitioner takes his or her innate Buddha-nature as the means of practice towards enlightenment. The premise is that since we innately have an enlightened mind, practicing seeing the world in terms of ultimate truth can help us to attain our full Buddha-nature. One of three routes to enlightenment. Other two routes are Mahayana and Hinayana. It subscribes to Buddhist tantric literature.

Buddhist Sites:

Anuradhapura, SriLanka - Sacred city for Buddhism and ancient capital of SL. City was established around a cutting from the ‘tree of enlightenment’, the Buddha’s fig tree, brought there in the 3rd century B.C. by Sanghamitta, the founder of an order of Buddhist nuns. Mahinda sent by Asoka preached Buddha's doctrine 236 years after passing of Buddha - This is the point at which a kingship began and a civilization developed based on Buddhism. Abhayagiri Monastery, 2m tall Buddha statue and Thuparama dagoba - an ancient stupa was built by King Devanampiya Tissa in the third century BC can be found here.

Devni-mori, 2km from Shamlaji, Gujarat - Buddhist monastery belonging to 3 or 4 C AD. Casket with inscription mentioning – bodily relics of Buddha. Devni mori in Sabarkantha, Taranga in Junagarh, Vadnagar in Mehsana – integrated Buddhist circuit – developed by State government.

Ghantasala - Buddhist stupa and sculptural slabs. Once a flourishing town of Indo-Roman trade as well as an important religious centre. Carved limestone columns belonging to pillared halls associated with Buddhist monastic establishments (2-3rd centuries BC). All walls were found to have beautiful plastering with superfine lime mortar.

Sripur / Shirpura, banks of river Mahanadi, CT - Once the capital of Sarbhapuriya and Somavamshi Kings of Dakshin Kosala. Important centre of Buddhist from 6-10 C AD. Visited by Hieun Tsang. 7th C Laxman Temple (dedicated to Vishnu) is finest brick temples of India.

Sultanganj, Bhagalpur district, Bihar - Sultanganj Buddha is largest complete bronze figure of its kind in the world. Dated by arch ~5th-7th C AD, Gupta-Pala transitional period sculpture, made using lost-wax technique.

Sigiriya, SL - Many rock shelters were occupied by Buddhist Monks and ascetics from as early as 3rd C BC. King Kasyapa built a palace top of rock and decorated the gateway in form of enormous lion - name derived from Sihagiri, the Lion Rock. Capital and Palace abandoned after Kings death. Used as Monastery until 14th C.

Dharmarajeshwar (location same as Mandsaur, West UP) - Ancient Buddhist and Hindu cave temple site of 5th / 6th C AD. Indian Rock cut architecture. Architecture of this temple can be compared to Ellora’s Kailasa temple.

Sankissa / Sankasya / Sankassa - Situated midway between Atranjikhera and Kannauj in Farukhabad district of UP. A centre for Buddhist Pilgrimage. An Ashokan pillar bearing his edict and a standing elephant as its capital has been found here. Excavation has yielded antiquities like PGW and NBPW, punch marked coins, cast copper coins, etc.

Thiksey Gompa, 19km east of Leh in Ladakh - Affiliated with Gelug sect of Buddhism. Largest Gompa in central Ladakh. 12 storey complex. Noted for its resemblance to Potala Palace in Lhasa, Tibet.

Ratnagiri, Jajpur District, Odissa - Stone sculptures of Buddhist divinities. Antiquities indicate popularity and sanctity of Ratnagiri as a centre of Buddhism comparable to Nalanda in Gupta and post-Gupta periods. Lalitgiri, Buddhist complex. Together with Ratnagiri and Udaigiri, part of Puspagiri University.

Sagala / Sakala / Sialkot, West Punjab, Pakistan - According to Greek historical texts which bring mention of city dating back to 327 BC it represented the eastern most outpost and expansion of Hellenic Empire created by Alexander. The Greek historians mention that the city was one of the most productive silk regions of the Achaemenid empire. Bactrian Indo-Greek Kingdom led by King Menander ruled over it in 2nd C BC and made Sakala as his CAPITAL. During his reign Sakala was an important centre of Buddhism. Later Mhd Ghori established a fortress in 1181 AD. Greek coins, ancient Zoroastrian temples and several Buddhist stupas.

Isipattan/ Sarnath, near Varanasi - Confluence of Ganges and Gomati rivers. Xuan Zang mentions stupa built by Ashoka here. Important monument is Dhamek Stupa (6C AD). Lion capital of Ashokan pillar.

Sankaram / Bojjannakonda: Excavated under the aegis of Alexander Rim in 1906 features all the three phases of Buddhism: Hinayana, Mahayana and Vajrayana. NagarjunaKonda, Guntur district, AP - Right bank of Krishna river, known as Vijaipuri, capital of Ikshvaku kings in 3rd-4th C AD. Centre of Buddhism, named after Nagarjuna, 2nd C philosopher in Mahayana Buddhism. Reveals evidence of Neolithic and Megalithic.

Shravasthi, near West Rapti River, UP - Capital of Koshala 6th BC to 6th CE. Birthplace of Jain Tirthankar Sambhavnath. Closely associated with Life of Buddha(greater part of monastic life). Age old Stupas, Viharas near village of "Sahet-Mahet".

Lumbini / Kapilavastu, Nepal - Queen Mayadevi gave birth to Buddha here under a Sal tree.

4-Buddhist councils:

1st Buddhist Council – Held after the death of Master. Sataparni Caves @ Rajgriha Ananda: Sutta:: Upala: Vinaya

2nd Buddhist Council – held a century later (by Kalasoka) To relax the 10-point in code of Discipline

3rd Buddhist Council – held in reign of Asoka, Pataliputra Presided by Moggaliputta Tissa – Abhidhamma treatise (final compilation) Even Asoka gave spiritual teachings here

4th Buddhist Council – held under Kanishka of Mathura President – Vasumitra; at Kundalvana, Kashmir Buddhacharita by Asvaghosa Mahayana form got patronised. Image of Buddha made. Belief in Bodhisatvas There was another council held in Tambapanni, SL – THERAVADA Buddhist Council

Noble truth: “Life is all pain – seek liberation”.

Doctrine of 4-Noble truth is also known as ‘Ariya-sachchani’.

1. Suffering [dukha]– sickness, pain, death, separation, loss of someone, loss of sensual pleasure
2. Cause of Suffering [samudaya] – Desire (to reborn)
3. Destruction of Suffering [nirodha] – passion, desire and love of life stops, pain stops.
4. Way that leads to destruction of Suffering [atthanga-magga] – initially Buddha started with Pessimism, later he found liberation in optimism – “8 Fold Path”

‘8-Fold’ Path of Liberation / Also called “Ashtangika”.

1. Right Thoughts (or views – remove ignorance)
2. Right Aspirations (strong will power)
3. Right Speech (avoid false or unpleasant words)
4. Right Conduct (or actions – stay away from excessive, theft, artificial beauty)
5. Right Contemplation (avoid or stop bad feelings, awake good thoughts)
6. Right Mindfulness (keep one’s mind, body and heart in real form)
7. Right Effort (bread by right means)
8. Right Concentration (or proper understanding of all above)

Buddha’s  teachings  to  a  large  extent  could  be  helpful  in  understanding  and  resolving the problems of today’s society. Analyse critically. [2014, 15m]

Following these 8 paths can help attain one Nirvana. The path is called middle path – one between extreme indulgence and extreme ascetism.

Meditation is very important in Buddhism and is the key to achieving mental calm and insight.

PS: 

Even Buddha says life is pain and suffering but the monks do not lead to radical fundamentalism. (What Jihadis do)

What we think of ‘I’ or ‘me’ is an ever changing compound of succession of instants of experiences and consciousness. The simile of the river helps explain this – the river seems the same, but the drops of water that constitute it are changing every instant.

The emphasis on impermanence involved rejection of any unchanging, permanent, eternal substances or essences such as the atman.

Jain Sites:

Gyaraspur, near Vidisha (35 km) and Sanchi - Ruins of several old Hindu, Jain and Buddhist places of worship mostly of 9th-10th century. Maladevi Temple: Pratihara period temple. Partly rock-cut and partly structural. Ornamented with Jaina Yaksha, Yakshini and Jina Tirthankar images, the sanctum door jambs have Ganga, Yamuna and other Hindu deities 9th century; Dhaikinath Stupa (Buddhism).

Sittanavasal, Pudukkotai district, TN - Known for Sittanvasal cave, Jain Complex. Village was settled during Megalithic period. Jainism flourished from 1st C BC to 10th C AD. Names of ascetics who engaged in Sallekhana are written in Tamil Brahmi Script.

Shravanabelagola, Hassan District, Karnataka - Has two hills - Chandragiri, Vindhyagiri. A2 Jain legends, Jain guru Bhadrabahu and his pupil Chandragupta Maurya are believed to have meditated in Sravan Belagola and died of starvation (Salekhana Vrat). Has two important Jain monuments both created by Chamundaraya, the minister and general of Western Ganga King Rajamalla in 983AD. One is Chamundaraya Basadi (a Jain temple) on the Chandragiri hill. Other is monolithic image of Gomatesvara also called Bahubali, son of first Tirthankara Rishabhdev. 58 Feet Statue is carved out of single block of granite. Considered to be world's largest monolithic stone statue. Every 12 years, devotees congregate to perform the Mahamastakabhisheka, a ceremony in which statue is covered with milk, curd, ghee, saffron, etc.

Pavapuri, Nalanda district Bihar - 2600 years ago it was twin capital of Mall Mahajanapad which later became part of Magadha. During reign of Ajatsatru, Hastipal was king of Pawapuri when Lord Mahavira came there. Mahavira was cremated at Pawapuri.

Shatrunjaya / Pundarikgiri / Siddhanjal / Siddhakakshetra/ Palitana - Hills located in city of Palitana, Bhavnagar district. Have similarities to other hills where Jain temples have been built in Bihar, Gwalior, Mt. Abu. Here it has 100s of Palitana's temples. Hills were sanctified by Lord Rishabhanath's first sermon. Pundarik was said to have attained Nirvana on this mountain.

Nagercoil - Name from famous Jain temple called Naga Raja. Came under various kingdoms - Cheras, Cholas, Pandyas.

Write a short essay on:  “Essence of early Jainism” [1995, 20m]

Assess the importance of Jain tenets and their relevance to humanity. [2011, 30m]

Mahavira’s 3-fold path also called jewels of Jainism: Right Belief, Right Knowledge, Right Conduct.

23rd Tirthankara Parsvanath codify of great vows:

1. Non-injury (Ahimsa)
2. Truthfulness (Satya)
3. Abstention from Stealing (Asteya)
4. Non-attachment (Aparigraha)
5. Celibacy (Brahmacharya) {by Mahavira}

Basadis: Famous Jain religious centres. Eg: Chaturmukha Basadi, a symmetrical Jain temple, is situated in Karkala (Karnataka).

The Gommateshwara statue at Shravanabelagola is one of the most important tirthas (pilgrimage destinations) in Jainism, one that reached a peak in architectural and sculptural activity under the patronage of Western Ganga dynasty of Talakad.

One of the important causes of the spread of Jainism in south India is said to be the great famine that occurred in Magadha 200 years after the death of Mahavira. This famine lasted for twelve years and in order to protect themselves many a Jainas went to the south under the leadership of Bhadrababu, even Chandragupta Maurya accompanied him. But, the rest of them stayed back in Magadha under the leadership of Sthalabahu. These emigrant Jainas spread Jainism in south India.

Jainas discarded Sanskrit and adopted Prakrit language as their main language for promoting it. Mahavira himself preached in Ardha-Magadhi. The adoption of Prakrit by the Jainas helped the growth of this language and its literature. The Jainas composed the earliest important works in Apabhramsa and prepared its first grammar.

Fatalists or Ajivikas 

were those who believe that everything is predetermined. Fatalists argue that the wise and the fool cannot come out of karma. It can neither be lessened nor increased. So fool and wise alike will take their course and make an end of sorrow. This is because the Universe operates on certain fundamental laws, and the human being is no exception to those laws.

Materialists or Lokayatas 

were those who believe that everything is not predetermined. Materialists say that a human being is made up of the four elements. When he dies the earthy in him returns to the earth, the fluid to water, the heat to fire, the windy to air, and his senses pass into space. The talk of gifts is a doctrine of fools, an empty lie. Fools and wise alike are cut off and perish. They do not survive after death.

Write a short essay on:  “Social and economic conditions of North India during the Pre-Mauryan period (600-325 B.C.).” [1996, 20m]

Social  norms  for  women  in  the  Dharmasastra  and  Arthasastra  tradition  were framed in accordance with the Varnashrama tradition. Evaluate critically. [2013, 20m]

How far is it correct to say that changes in the post-Vedic economy gave birth to new religious movements in India? [2015, 15m]

“The Sixth century B.C. was a period of religious and economic unrest in India.” Comment. [2003, 60m]

What were the causes of the origin of the heterodox sects in the sixth century BC? [1984, 20m]

Write a short essay on: “The intellectual revolution in the Sixth Century B.C.” [1988, 20m]