Past Year Questions:
With a brief background of quality of urban life in India, introduce
the objectives and strategy of the ‘Smart City Programme’.
|
Major cities of India are becoming more
vulnerable to flood
conditions. Discuss.
|
Mumbai, Delhi and Kolkata are the three mega
cities of the country but the air pollution is much more serious problem in Delhi as
compared to the other two. Why is this so?
|
Smart
cities in India cannot sustain without smart villages. Discuss
this statement in the backdrop of rural urban integration.
|
Discussion the various social problems which originated out of
the speedy process of
urbanization in India.
|
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Prelims cum Mains through Images:
Population
residing in urban areas in India, according to 1901 census, was
11.4%. This count increased to 28.53% according to 2001 census, and crossing
30% as per 2011 census, standing at 31.16%.
|
|
|
Customized model for India
Urbanization supported by industrialization -
catering for future footfall
in the city prevents slum growth and better inclusion. Raising cities without
employment opportunities doesn’t solve long term agendas.
Inclusion for the elderly and the disabled,
Safety of women and children. India doesn’t yet agree to the “right to the city” in Urban Habitat
III agenda.
Climate
mitigation - to
avoid situations like Chennai floods.
Rurban Planning, which creates growth at micro-level
and impedes rural-to-urban migration.
Availability of cheaper and environment friendly fuel
for cooking and transport, cheaper and environment friendly mode of public
transport, using environment friendly technologies such as rain water
harvesting, solar devices.
|
|
Non-Invasive Development Models
Used to develop urban spaces, non-invasive
development does not invade the environment of the area but rather includes
it. Features are: Development does not destroy nature. Eco-Friendly.
Sustainable and judicious use of natural resources like water, green cover,
etc.
On a pilot basis to extract water from the Yamuna
flood plains in Delhi, new cities like Amravati can be planned using this
model.
|
|
Smart Cities: The idea of smart cities was first developed by
technology giant IBM. With the concept of a circular economy gaining more
traction, the trend of smart cities is on the rise.
It is not absolutely correct to say
that we are emulating outdated concepts of urbanisation which has been copied from the nations which
have become rich by questionable means since
·
we are not applying absolute method of
industrialisation which took place in Europe neither our democratic socialist
liberal country is pro rich and anti-poor as was true with Europe in the
past.
Export oriented industrial corridor cannot be
called best model of urban growth since it holds only economic factor but by
no means smart city concept is outdated or questionable in approach. Smart
city itself is characterised by “efficient use of physical infrastructure
through artificial intelligence and data analytics to support a strong and
healthy economic, social, cultural development and it include concepts like
e-governance, sustainable development”.
|
|
Pattern of Urbanisation between 1991 and 2011
URBAN AREA CRITERIA: minimum population of 5,000; maximum of 25% of
the male working population employed in agriculture, the rest in
non-agricultural activities; population density of at least 400 per km2.
·
In addition, every place with a corporation,
cantonment, municipality or notified town area is also termed urban.
During 1991 TO 2011:
1. Positive growth – 31.2% (2011) from 27.8% (2001)
and 25.7 % (1991).
2. Urbanisation is low compared to other developing
nations – 31% (India), 52% (China), 87% (Brazil), 61% (S Africa).
3. Migration driven Urbanization, Exclusionary in
nature (Slums).
|
|
Medium Sized Cities
In countries like the US and China, medium sized
cities are engines of economic progress—but in India, megacities still
dominate. Reasons why medium size cities not growing:-
1. The availability of road, railways, other
physical infrastructure, skilled manpower (especially those with higher
education), and internet availability has been relatively less developed in
medium-cities vis-Ã -vis. Megacities.
2. Large scale migration to big cities leave the
medium sized cities on disadvantage.
3. Private sector is not motivated to shift focus
towards medium sized cities due to lack of incentives and underdevelopment of
infrastructure facilities.
4. Local municipalities are not sufficiently capable
of providing appropriate environment for private companies to come.
Devolution of power is necessary.
|
|
New Urban Agenda
NUA = urbanization and sustainable development.
Agreed upon at the Habitat III cities conference in
Quito, Ecuador, in October 2016.
Development Enablers; Operational enablers; Features
/ Priorities / Prominently = (including core and priorities) basic
facilities to citizens like safe drinking water, sanitation etc; Democratic development, needs of women,
children, senior citizens, differently-abled people, marginalized sections;
rights of refugees, migrants, internally displaced people; renewable
energy, greener and better public transport;
Lessons India’s Smart Cities Mission can learn
from NUA:
Right to City a LeFebvrian concept which
propounds equal access of all facets of urban life to all its dwellers. SCM
does not pay much emphasis on strengthening local level governance,
which it can incorporate from the NUA. More focus be given to the development
basis the local requirements and funding rather than complete dependence on
Centre as one size fit all would not be the best way for development of
Indian cities.
|
|
Tackle Air Pollution
India has registered an alarming increase of
nearly 50% in premature deaths from particulate matter between 1990 and 2015.
Causes of such high air pollution in India -
1. PM 2.5 are released particularly from diesel
engines, and by industry, thermal power plants as well as from natural sources
like dust.
2. Fireworks during the festival of Diwali. [Delhi]
3. Smoke from the farm fires of Punjab and Haryana.
[Delhi]
4. Fuel wood and biomass burning is the primary
reason for near-permanent haze and smoke observed above rural and urban
India.
5. Adulteration of gasoline and diesel with
lower-priced fuels is common in India => increase harmful emissions.
6. Municipal solid waste, 1000s of T =>
eventually burned.
7. Galloping urbanization => massive construction
projects = dust.
Air pollution is worsening in India – Weak environmental regulation in India. Rapidly
increasing urbanization and vehicle density. Dependence on thermal power
sector.
Way forward: Adopting stringent norms for sugar, brick making and other
manufacturing industries to check their pollution at the initial stage
itself. NGT AND CPCB should be invested with greater regulating powers for effective
implementation of its order as courts cannot intervene every time. Steps like
adopting Odd-Even policy, new Air Quality Index are steps in right direction.
They increase the citizen awareness
of the citizens which are greatest stakeholder in fight against pollution.
Subsidizing higher technology required for BS 6 and electric vehicles,
promoting LPG gas in rural areas.
In US, China, EU - Mobikes, Cycle pedestrian,
Municipal Waste segregation at hh. EU Norms, Fuel, Public Transport.
|
|
Indian Cities
Three rules of entropy that apply to all Indian
cities:
1. Every planning model is overturned by
excess of population – housing and public transport, for example
cannot keep pace with rising numbers.
2. Space is often not legally used for the
intention for which
it is made – markets become warehouses, houses are used as makeshift
factories, sidewalks as temporary homes, parks as toilets.
3. Everything decays and fall apart faster than the Mughal monument down the road – an
indicator as much of weathering, as of poor construction quality.
Cities must plan for an India on the move or end
up as slums. Bureaucracy and Planning will necessarily have to reorient their
aims to migratory tasks. There is continual overbuilding and crowding of
cities.
Auto Constructed Cities = Challenges for Policy
makers –
1. Lot of pressure on urban administration. Regulation of traffic,
crimes becomes difficult.
2. There is potential threat of urban flooding and
in the presence of unplanned urbanization, disaster management and mitigation
strategies may not be efficient.
3. It makes difficult to provide basic services to people.
4. Failure of slum development schemes, example in
Mumbai, tended people to sell their allotted housing and look for housing in
slums again in lieu of money.
5. Poverty in quite a number of these localities and radicalisation of youth
combine to become greater threats
to national security.
|
|
Measures by Government to tackle Rapid
Urbanization
Smart Cities, AMRUT, Housing for All, HRIDAY and
Swachh Bharat are aimed at not only addressing various deficits to provide
better urban governance, but also seek to make Indian cities and towns
throbbing hubs of growth and sustainable development.
Incentives for universal housing, giving
infrastructure status to affordable housing, allowing FDI and providing
income tax exemption to achieve these goals.
A reduction in interest — 6.5 % subvention for
economically weaker sections, 4 % for low-income groups and 3 % for
middle-income groups – housing by PM.
Innovative measures like waste-to-energy,
waste-to-compost and the reuse of construction and demolition waste.
Approved an investment of over Rs 4 lakh crore
for improving urban infrastructure under the new urban missions = Rs 1.38
lakh crore under Smart City Plans for 60 cities, Rs 0.78 lakh crore under
AMRUT, Rs 0.68 lakh crore under the Swachh Bharat Mission (Urban), Rs 0.45
lakh crore under new metro projects and Rs 1.04 lakh crore for building
affordable houses under the Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana (Urban).
|
|
Role of Citizens - Save water, electricity,
segregate waste, follow rules and law, alert. Car Pool. Give Suggestions.
Participate.
|
|
New City or Existing City - Creating new cities comes with some advantages
– Better planning, financing and resources management. Everything which you
can plan from the start.
|
|
Flood Proof Cities
Chennai, Kochi, Mumbai and Kolkata face issues
related to –
Increase in number of encroachments around an
ocean, river, Lake, etc. Slums and encroachments over flood prone area.
Irregularities in monitoring flood signals.
Infrastructural durability.
Tourist places are not able to convey cyclone and
flood information with conviction.
|
|
Slum Dwellers Rehab - Urban Poor
A Slum, for the purpose of Census, has been
defined as residential areas where dwellings are unfit for human habitation
[health and safety] by reasons of dilapidation, overcrowding, faulty
arrangements and design of such buildings, narrowness or faulty arrangement
of street, lack of ventilation, light, or sanitation facilities or any
combination of these factors which are detrimental to the safety and health.
Census categorized: Notified Slums; Recognized
Slums; Identified Slums.
Maharashtra has 10% Slums and more slum hh than
AP which has 12% Slums. Next are TN, WB, MP, UP.
One of the approaches of Slum Dwelling Management
is to shift the slum dwellers from one area to other housing areas having
better living conditions and this is used in PMAY.
Way Forward:
·
In-situ slum upgrading is a far more effective
solution to improving the lives of slum dwellers than is resettlement.
·
Modified slums build sense of confidence among
the poor people in the society. Along with this, small scale industries
should be encouraged in such housing establishments, with provision of
mandatory procurement from such industries for large scale industries in the
city. This will ensure better pull factors for slum dwellers and help in
providing adequate living conditions to larger population.
|
|
UN Habitat Report on Challenge of Slums
UN-Habitat report, “The Challenge of Slums:
Global Report on Human Settlements 2003”, shows that slum life
1. often entails enduring some of the most
intolerable housing conditions, which frequently include sharing toilets with
hundreds of people, living in overcrowded and insecure neighbourhoods, and
constantly facing the threat of eviction.
2. more likely to contract water-borne diseases,
such as cholera and typhoid, as well as opportunistic ones that accompany
HIV/AIDS.
3. therefore, enormous social and psychological
burdens on residents, which often leads to broken homes and social exclusion.
4. common perception is that slums are breeding
grounds for crime, the report shows that slum dwellers, in fact, are more
often victims than perpetrators of crime.
5. Report put the vacancy in urban housing built
under the PMAY at 23 per cent.
**Opportunistic infections (OIs)
are infections that occur more frequently and are more severe in
individuals with weakened immune systems, including people with HIV.
|
|
London's Public Transport System
An MoU between Transport for London (TfL) and
India’s Ministry of Road Transport and Highways.
Journeys
made by public transport systems account for 25% of London’s
journeys while private services accounted for 41% of journeys.
|
|
Bharat Norms, BS-VI
Bharat norms are India’s vehicular pollution
norms similar to Euro norms of Europe. They were introduced in India with
recommendations from MASHELKAR Committee. They go from Bharat Stage I to VI
in increasing order of pollution control effectiveness.
Bharat Stage III vehicles are considered more polluting than later
stages because these emit more polluting gases like CO, NO2, SO2, etc from
exhaust. BS IV fuel
contain less sulphur => Reduction in Sulphur exhaust => reduced acid
rain. Engine efficiency a leading indicator of pollution potential is lesser
in BS III vehicles. Technologies like Catalytic converter which come with
later stages capture and convert CO to less harmful pollutants like CO2. BS
III engines are also incompatible with higher quality fuels, especially those
blended with more percentage of ethanol.
Supreme Court directed transport
authorities to stop registering vehicles that do not meet Bharat Stage-IV
emission standards from April 1, 2017 => environmental combat and air pollution control at
a higher priority than the economic profits of companies. Highlights the
pitiable qualities of air quality across India, especially cities and
vehicular emissions role in it.
|
|
POLLUTANTS FROM COAL FIRED POWER PLANT
Nitrogen oxides (NOx), Sulfur
dioxide (SO2), Mercury (Hg), Particulate matter (PM), Smog,
Black carbon. < air pollution>. Additionally, the water released from
plants causes thermal stress in aquatic systems. <water pollution>.
Also, higher demands for coal has led to more mining and in process causing
soil pollution.
However, it must be noted that coal-fired power
plants are not the only cause for air pollution:
·
Natural sources: Volcanoes, salts spray from seas
and ocean, cosmic particles, pollen grains, etc.
·
Man-made sources: Industries, Domestic sources,
Automobile, Agriculture, etc.
|
|
Waste Management Lessons and Innovative
Approaches
Success story (Case Study): The systematic management of waste through the
strict enforcement of norms for segregation of garbage and imposing of
penalties on violators helped the Corporation of the City of Panaji (CCP)
bring some order to the hotel waste problem during its six-month campaign
last year. This initiative has lessons for waste managers, as hotels and
eateries in urban areas contribute predominantly to the bulk of the total
waste generated in towns and cities.
·
Infrastructure - capital investments, construct
or refurbish landfills, and provide bins, dumpsters, trucks, and transfer
stations.
·
Behavior change and public participation.
·
Environmentally sound waste disposal -
technologies that capture biogas and landfill gas; support resilience by
reducing waste disposal in waterways and safeguarding infrastructure against
flooding.
·
Resource recovery in most developing countries
relies heavily on informal workers, who collect, sort, and recycle 15-20% of
generated waste. Projects address waste picker livelihoods through strategies
such as integration into the formal system, as well as the provision of safe
working conditions, social safety nets, child labor restrictions, and
education.
|
|
NITI AAYOG on SWM [under draft 3 year agenda]
Incineration or “Waste to Energy” is the
best option <-> contention is that biogas and composting for waste
management generate by-products or residues in large volumes that larger
cities will find difficult to dispose of efficiently.
·
But they emit toxic gases as by-products. Neither
incorporates lessons from experience of incineration plants in Delhi, nor
takes note of the many success stories of bio-methanation.
·
Indian waste is not suitable for incineration
because it has too high a moisture content, leading to low calorific value
(~800 kcal/kg while required ~2000).
Solid Waste Management Rules (2016) are a
significant improvement over the Municipal Solid Waste Rules (2000) in
emphasising the need for the enforcement of segregation.
·
Niti Aayog is silent on the segregation of wet
waste from dry waste at the source of generating waste. Incentives for
segregation and a penalty for non-segregation must be the first action point
of any agenda.
Where's
place to dump 9k tonnes of garbage daily. Factors - unsegregated waste, over
population, illegal construction, tussle among various agencies.
Per capita waste generation increasing by 1.3% pa
+ urban population increasing between 3– 3.5% pa => Annual increase in
waste generation is around 5% pa.
|
|
URBANIZATION and HEALTH
Swine Flu returns - why it is bigger and
dangerous now than before - spreading fast (Pandemic by WHO), cyclical nature
of virus (spurt in cases and deaths every few years). Oseltamivir, the drug
for treatment of H1N1 influenza, was moved from Schedule X to Schedule H1.
How hard H1N1 strikes is in many cases a function
of awareness and preparedness. It is also a function of living conditions -
the more people are exposed to crowded places or unhygienic living
conditions, more are they likely to contract infection.
|
|
Hydrology
is the science of
management of water and water resources for the benefit of mankind. The
recent frequency of occurrence of urban floods has once again brought the attention to
the immediate need for having a proper urban hydrological system
in place to deter occurrences in future.
Water is a mobile liquid and this property can be
exploited well for draining out water from cities by construction of differential
slopes along roads, sideways, walkways etc.
Using the tools of hydrology like lifts,
pumps, canal, embankment etc proper water conservation measures can be taken
for storm water harvesting, watershed management.
This steps only needs to be encouraged by city
administrator along with complementary measures like proper urban
planning, regular drain desalination, water body conservation, strict
vigilance by NGT, civic capacity building, raising awareness among
others.
|
|
Water-wise cities by International Water
Association
Principles:
1. Regenerative Water Services – replenish water
bodies
2. Water Sensitive Urban Design – design urban
spaces to reduce floods
3. Basin Connected Cities – prepare for extreme
events
4. Water-Wise Communities – empowered citizens,
aware professionals
a. Many industries do not treat, recycle and
replenish water. We need to compel industries to conserve more water than
they consume and make the world water positive.
Providing safe water and sanitation
to hundreds of millions of people is critical to achieve the 2030 Agenda
for Sustainable Development, and it will require a shared vision, collaboration
and exceptional leadership from government, civil society and the private
sector locally and globally.
|
|
Groundwater Regulation
Ground water is the water that seeps through
rocks and soil and is stored below the ground. The rocks in which ground
water is stored are called aquifers. Aquifers are typically made up of
gravel, sand, sandstone or limestone.
India is the world’s largest user of groundwater.
India currently has the largest land area under groundwater irrigation.
[UNSUSTAINABLE] Already, 16% of India’s districts are classified as
“overexploited” or “critical”.
|
|
National Water Framework Bill, 2016
The law talks about pricing water while providing
a certain minimum quantity of water for drinking free. Every person has a
right to sufficient quantity of safe water.
All basin states have equitable rights over the
use of river water provided such use does not violate the right to water for
life of any person in the river basin.
States must recognise the principle that the
rivers are public trustees and not owned by the basin-States.
·
If agriculture sucks rivers and aquifers dry,
water for drinking will always be a problem. If an upper riparian state
exploits a river before letting it flow into a lower state, there will always
be a conflict.
|
|
Traditional Water Storage – Eg: Bahmani
Karez is found in 38 countries worldwide and of
course most of these are concentrated in the Middle East region. Karez system
was built by Bahmani kings in 15th Century in Bidar, Gulbarg and Bijapur and
also in Burhanpur. Karez (Qanat) is an underground network of aqueducts for
water supply.
1. As the highland source is above low-lying
destinations, the water drains by gravity. Thus, qanats have low operation
& maintenance costs once built; furthermore, no pumps are required.
2. Secondly, qanats allow water to be transported,
with minimal evaporation loss, over long distances in hot, dry climates.
3. Thirdly, this system is very little dependant on
the level of precipitation, and is resistant to natural disasters such as
floods.
4. Fourthly, they control soil-salinity of the
plains by consistently providing them with freshwater.
|
|
Paradox in Urban Housing
Urban Cities - Saskia Sassen coined 'global
city'.
a. severe shortage of affordable housing vs
b. increasing investment in luxury housing projects
vs
c. even as substantial quantum of housing stock lies
vacant.
India needs more cities: extraordinary amount of
wealth vs even more extra ordinary amount of deep poverty.
Poor in India:
dignified, do not become like drunks of London's industrial cities.
|
|
Rental Housing
Merits:
1. Solves the housing crisis of many families,
especially migrants.
2. Fits into the economic plans of families much
better than buying or leasing.
3. Provide choices for economic and spatial mobility
to renters. [In a lot of cases, people are not able to find better houses
than the ones they are already renting; Could be due to various factors like
landlord interference, ghettoization, lack of knowledge etc. Thus, lack of
economic mobility of housing.]
4. Allows a source of additional income for house
owners.
5. Ensures optimum use of city’s urban spaces.
Challenges:
1. Regressive laws like rent-control acts of various
states being too renter-centric.
2. Lack of formalisation of rental ecosystem (and
system of chawls and slums being put to let).
3. Prejudice and Ghettoization of rental spaces with
apprehensions against renting to foreigners, bachelors etc
|
|
Proprietary cities
are those cities which are owned by private individuals.
Other users have to rent spaces in the city from that owner. The owner
provides the basic amenities like maintenance, sanitation, safety etc.
As owned by private business-minded individuals they will
take steps for optimal economic output from it => modernization,
technological up gradation and improved standard of living => global
standards they shall attract FDI, more job opportunities, professional and
ethical management. However, business-political nexus => private motive of
revenue shall lead to exploitation => afforded only by rich =>
differences, disunity. Education shall be very costly. Moreover it would not
serve the purpose of uplifting the disabled and marginalised.
|
|
Spatial divides, Urban Violence and role of Urban
Planning
Spatial divides and imbalance sharing of
resources in cities reflected in exclusionary urban planning => violence
that Indian cities face = communal riots; assault on vulnerable like women,
elderlies, disabled, children; violent protest against state authorities.
A better urban planning can curb these incidents
as:
1. End of Ghettos
a. Better planned cities can end the culture of
people preferring societies on religious lines; a city planned for everyone
with regulated place can end religious ghettos.
b. Segregation of cities, leading to class divide
based on services – can be ended by better planned cities providing equal
services like water and sanitation services without differentiating between
rich and poor.
2. Ending vulnerabilities and instilling
inclusiveness
a. More street lights, more surveillances, gender
sensitised police, better transport facilities and regulated private
transports can end the vulnerabilities of women in cities.
b. Need more initiatives and better implementation
of Sugamya Bharat initiative which increase the accessibility for disabled.
c. Playing parks, cycling routes, sensitised police,
nearby schools can end vulnerabilities of children.
3. Ending the apprehensions of urban poor
a. The poorly planned and executed rehabilitation
policies for slum dwellers and urban poor have led to violent protests
against the administration. The rehabilitation of urban poor must be properly
planned and executed in humane way.
4. Ending small fights
a. Better traffic management and control, better
road management, better services like water supply and electricity and a smart
and better equipped police can help curb small fights.
Whether the Indian planners go for Public
infrastructure or Private or PPP mode (municipal bonds), they must put
emphasis on inclusive, safe and sustainable cities.
Lone wolf attacks where the attacker is from
within the society has showed how important it is to end social alienation
and ghettoization for safeguarding the peace in cities.
|
|
Transport as a service [TaaS] -- Private Cab
Services rising an indicator of failure of government?
A paradigm where people are using a hybrid
combination of public and private transport, combined with the sharing
economy, cashless payments with swipe cards and the GPS-enabled smartphone.
Vital stats: 79% of app based cab drivers reported an increase
in income from before. App based cab drivers make the maximum number of trips
per day compared to both autos and private taxis.
Arguments in favour of Private Cab Services –
1. Usually public transport has fixed hours of
service and thus could not be used at odd hours like in midnight or early
morning.
2. The reach of public transport has been limited
mostly to the core areas of the city. The peripheral areas have been poorly
served where most of the migrants live.
3. Public transport lacks ‘Last Mile Connectivity’
due which most of the women are made to take longer routes.
4. Public transports like Buses and Local/Metro
services are inadequate in terms of quantity and most of the time falls short
of quality (cleanliness, hygiene etc) thus compelling commuters to go for
cabs.
Arguments against –
1. Cab services provide ‘End to End’ connectivity
which suits to the need of commuters and also saves his/her time.
2. Cab services have prospered even at places where
public transport is good on accounts of factors like flexibility, low prices
and smooth travel.
3. The public transport services like Delhi Metro
have been successful beyond imagination and such projects are coming up in
cities like Bengaluru, Jaipur, Pune etc.
4. Advantages of public transport - Co-passengers
ensure vigilance, presence of Driver and Conductor, ie Government Servants
ensure help, pre-determined path, women attendant, first aid.
|
|
Challenges to Uberization
Regulatory framework - Indian law requires that
any trailer that is attached to a truck must bear the same registration
number as the truck. This makes it impossible to deploy a hub and spoke model
as this model relies on trailers being capable of being detached from one
truck and attached to another at each hub throughout the journey.
Interstate transport needs permits from each
state thereby complicating the procedure of using e-technology.
The required cyber infrastructure. Lack of
infrastructural facilities like quality roads.
|
|
Directly Elected and Empowered Mayors
Recent incidence: Maharashtra cabinet approved a proposal for
direct election of the village sarpanch, the head of the gram panchayat.
Earlier, the sarpanch was elected indirectly, by elected representatives.
This step was discussed and thus it has been proposed that the criteria of
direct elections should also extend to the municipal corporations that govern
larger urban areas.
Pros of direct elections of Mayor: Accountability (enhance the sense of
responsibility), Decentralisation (public mandate to run local urban
governance with all required authority) => help tackle Complex urban
issues.
Cons: If a directly elected mayor belongs to a party
in minority in the municipality, it becomes difficult to get other
municipality members on board in taking decisions. This was witnessed in
Himachal Pradesh, which ultimately led to the scrapping of this system.
|
|
Formal and
Informal Interactions - Urban Elections
“As India urbanises, acknowledging the formal and
informal interactions and incorporating them to understand local politics can
provide valuable insights into our urbanisation trajectory.”
·
Urban body elections (Delhi, Mumbai, etc) are
soul of democratic governance in the urban local government set up of country
established by 74th amendment act 1992.
·
Formal and informal both types of organisations
are playing their due role in ensuring the right to services in time in
various states of India.
·
SCM has taken care of this crucial aspect by
encouraging the informal sector in the implementation of the scheme.
|
0 Comments