The Chalukyas of Kalyana, Hoysalas, Pandyas; Tamil States of the Sangam Age; Sangam literature and culture;
8. Justify Pliny’s statement the Rome was being drained out of its gold by India during the first century of the Christian era. [2012, 30m] |
2. How was overseas trade organized in South India up to 300 A.D.? Discuss this with special reference to Roman trade and point out its impact on Indian economy. [1984, 60m] |
6. How do recent archaeological findings and Sangam literary texts enlighten us about the early state and society in South India? [2008, 60m] |
Chalukyas of Badami and Pallavas; The Cholas: Rajaraja, Rajendra I - Naval Expeditions; Administration, Local Self Government, village economy and society
12. Analyse the vibrant cultural activities in peninsular India during 550-750 CE. Compare and contrast it with the situation in contemporary North India. [2012, 30m] |
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A scientific historian of India ought to begin his study with the basins of Krishna, of the Cauvery, of the Vaigai rather than with the Gangetic basin, as has been the fashion for too long. Discuss critically
Real history of India is south of Vindhyas not north of it. NI has seen many invasions => early H has been lost to large extent. Temples, monasteries constantly destroyed. Sources/evidence of EIH of NI limited. SI such invasions are rare and non-existent. Evidence is present.
Colonial Historians - 1st to write IH in opening decades of 19th C. Focus was BR - approach = colonial. Achievements of India denied, failures highlighted. Focus on Political H, Dark age; NI - evidence lost, Social, cultural, Art in SI intact. Level of economic progress - stable in SI, tradition based idea - History should be started w/ S.
But then H of NI is not foreign origin.
In what ways would the period of the Pallavas of the Kanchi and that of the Chalukyas of Badami mark the beginning of a new historical phase in peninsular India? [1991, 60m]
Trace briefly the history of the struggle between the Chalukyas and the Pallavas. Analyze its causes and bring out its importance. [1985, 60m]
Give an account of the struggle for supremacy in South India between the Chalukyas of Badami and the Pallavas. [2000, 60m]
Examine the causes responsible for struggle between the Chalukyas of Vatapi and the Pallavas of Kanchi and bring out its importance.
Causes - Geo proximity; Concurrent emergence; Resource deficiency in Chalukyan kingdom; Imperialism; Revenge.
Significance - Tradition of political military conflicts continue in future by Cholas and Cheras; Destruction of Capitals; Mutual internecine - both dynasties fell; Chalukyas were replaced by Rashtrakuta; Pallavas by Cholas.
Make a comparative study of the administrative system and development of art under the Pallavas of Kanchi and the Chalukyas of Vatapi. [1990, 60m]
Who were the Pallavas? Review briefly their contribution to art and administration [1983, 60m]
Discuss critically the main aspects of polity and society under the Pallavas. [1981, 60m]
Assess the achievements of the Pallavas in administration and art. [1997, 60m]
Evaluate the importance of the contributions of the Pallavas in the history of the development of art and administration in South India. [1988, 60m]
In the field of administration and culture the Chola period marked the culmination of process that began in an earlier age under the Pallavas.
Chalukyas of VATAPI or BADAMI | Pallavas |
Opening decades of 6th C - new history in Peninsular India. Capital at Vatapi. | After the decline of Sangam age in Tamil country, KALABHRA rule lasted for about 250 years. Thereafter Pallavas established their kingdom in Tondaimandalam with its capital at Kanchipuram. Their rule continued till Tondaimandalam was captured and annexed by imperial CHOLAS. |
ADMINISTRATION of CHALUKYAS: Monarchical - King at centre of administration. High sounding titles ~ MAHARAJADHIRAJA, PARAMBATTARAKA. No reference of any advisory or ministerial council. | ADMINISTRATION of PALLAVAS: 1st to create strong monarchical systems - Dharma Maharaja. (later carried to greater heights by Cholas = Kings image put in temples - UTTARAMERUR this village itself built by Pallavas). |
Military cams functioned as mobile capitals = Skandavar => all moved with king. Kings issued orders and took admin decisions in camp itself. Patronised Brahmanas and performed sacrifices like Vajpeya and Ashwamedha. | Well organized. State divided into KOTTAMS administered by officers appointed by KING. King was at centre of administration in which he was assisted by able ministers. King provided land-grants to temples known as DEVADHANA and also to Brahmans known as BRAHMADEYA. |
| Officers even at village - RASHTRA - MANDAPAM - VALANADU. Pallava inscriptions also throw light on Village assemblies called SABHAs - they maintained records of all village lands, looked after local affairs and managed temples. ARMY, NAVY, IMPERIALISM Pallavas started (and Cholas carried it abroad). |
| Responsibility of Central government - provide irrigation facilites. A number of irrigation tanks were dug by Pallava kings. Irrigation tanks at Mahendravadi and Mamandoor were dug during the reign of Mahendravarman I. |
Political system was based on Dharmasastra module of NI. Feudal elements were present - reccords reference of # of vassals - ALUPA, SENDRAKA etc. Most of important positions held by close relatives of king.
| Land Tax was primary source of government revenue. Grants to temples and Brahmans were exempted from tax. Traders, artisans such as carpenters, goldsmiths, washerman, oil-pressers and weavers paid taxes to government. All these detailed information is from Pallava inscriptions. |
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“Not only does ancient Tamil literature furnish an accurate picture of widely disparate classes; it also describes the social condition of Tamil country as it was.” Discuss. [2015, 10m]
Discuss the types of lands and the Science of agriculture mentioned in the literature and epigraphs of ancient India. [2011, 20m]
An accurate picture of widely disparate classes is given in Tolkappiyam. [Refer TN-XI]
Social Condition of Tamil Country, Religion, Position of Women is found in writings of Sangam Literature, Women Poets. [Refer TN-XI]
In the Sangam Age, women were treated with special consideration.
Their most important virtue was chastity. The heroine of Silappathigaram. Kannagi had been hailed for her chastity and worshipped by the people.
The women were given freedom to choose their life partners during the Sangam period.
Husband was equivalent to God - they were not permitted to remarry and inherit property. Sati was not prevalent though royal women did practise it.
Padimagalir — women bodyguards - protected and attended to the king, celebrated for their valour.
Women’s education was also insisted during the Sangam Age. Few women poets like Avvaiyar, Kakkai Padiniyar and Nachchellaiyar.
The ‘daughters of god,’ the Devanar Makkal or temple women, had their names inscribed in temples for donations received in their names, and inscriptions suggest that Chola women had at least some control over the resources of their households.
The presence of donors beyond the queens suggests that female power existed throughout Chola society. Women were witnesses and signatories for land grants to temples, as well as land transactions.
This was a patriarchal, feudal society that still saw women in the context of their relationships with men, and widows were marginalised. Low status women were more like property, and could be exchanged by men.
What were the salient features of the bureaucratic machinery of the Cholas? [1985, 20m]
Show that the administrative system in India reached a very high level during the Chola period. [2007, 60m]
How could the local self-government under the Cholas adjust with their centralized administration structure? [2015, 10m]
Describe the village administration of the Chola period as known from the Uttaramerur inscriptions. [1979, 60m]
Write a short essay on: “Local self-government under the Cholas.” [1992, 20m]
Evaluating various theories regarding the Chola State, throw light on its village assemblies. [2014, 15m]
The system of village autonomy with assemblies (Sabhas and Urs) and their committees (Variyams) developed through the ages and reached its culmination / zenith during the Chola rule.
Two inscriptions belonging to the period of Parantaka I found at Uttaramerur provide details of the formation and functions of village councils. It is said that during Chola period, there was democratic government at the village level as the Uttaramerur inscription gives an idea of how a village assembly of Uttaramerur consisted of elected members.
Several works like maintenance of temples, agriculture, irrigation, collection of taxes, road construction etc was looked after by the local assembly through their committees. The Chola Emperors respected the decisions of these assemblies.
Each assembly functioned autonomously in accordance with its own constitution based on custom and usage, and took care of the problems of its members at the local level. In matters affecting people of more than one assembly, decision was taken by mutual deliberation.
Important Brahmadeyas were granted taniyur status. Taniyur means ‘separate village’. They were considered independent entities and granted considerable functional autonomy.
Those regions which were in the central region of Kaveri river basin were put under direct Royal control, while those regions which were far away and located in drier region were autonomous and contained the self-governing institution.
Local Assemblies like Nagaram (assembly of traders) acted as an agent of monarchy in regulating trade and markets.
The assessment and collection of revenue were undertaken by local assemblies like Ur, Sabha and Nagaram, who passed the revenue onto the centre.
Local administration through the assembly units greatly lightened the burden of the Central government. It not only gave a chance to population to air its grievances and solving the problems. This also strengthened the basis of the state by minimizing opposition to it as the people could not hold the government responsible for the matters.
Participation of local people in immediate politics, administration was remarkable. Local bodies involved redistribution of local resources for the benefit of people, DHARMA VARIYAM for maintenance of temple, ERI VARIYAM for irrigation, etc.
But Chola village assemblies had only some political practices as democratic. The Chola polity was absolute monarchy.
Were the Chola village assemblies democratic in nature? Give reasons for your answer. [2000, 60m]
How far can the village assemblies or communities under the Cholas be really called democratic? [2009, 30m]
The Cholas are said to have established a strong and well organized administration with an element of self-government at the local level. Do you agree? Give reasons. [2004, 60m]
The central government through its officers exercised general supervision and had right to intervene in the matter of village under emergency situations. The village assemblies had to take into account the policies of central government.
There were close links between some of the Brahmanas Sabha and Chola court. Uttaramerur inscriptions state that the resolution of the Sabha was made in the presence of an official especially deputed by the King.
Tanjavur inscriptions indicate that Raja Raja I issued orders to the Sabha of Chola-mandalam to perform various types of services in the Brihadeshwara temple.
Other factors which indicate lack of proper democracy were:
Candidates were elected through lot system instead of voting system.
The members of the Ur (village assembly of non-Brahmins) consisted of the taxpaying land owners of the village. Whereas in case of Sabha (village assembly of Brahmans), membership was governed by criterion such as property ownership, family antecedents, learning and good conduct.
There were many people, who were debarred from contesting election, for ex: relatives of criminals, those who had been on any committee for past three years.
In actual functioning of the assemblies, no reference is found regarding quorum or decision by voting.
Water supplies determined to a large extent that which villages would have their assemblies and which would not. Those villages which were in the central region of Kaveri river basin were under direct Royal control, while those regions which were far away and located in drier region were autonomous and contained the self-governing institution.
Therefore, the village assemblies cannot be called democratic in modern sense as the grassroots democracy was not absolute.
MANDALAMS -> NADUS -> AGRAHARAS -> KUDUMBAS -> GRAM SABHAS or VARIYAM. Good functioning of VARIYAMS increased the efficiency of local self-government (KURRAMs or Local Self Government).
Evaluate the role of nadu and nagaram in the growth of urbanisation under the Cholas. [2012, 30m]
Role of nadu and nagaram in the growth of urbanisation under the Cholas -
The theory of urban decay is not applicable to south India, as cities there played multiple roles as political centres, centres of manufacturing and trade and sacred or ceremonial centres.
During the 8th century CE, in south India, nagaram emerged, which were mainly connected with the production and exchange commodities, at local, inter-regional or international level.
A Nadu could have one or more nagaram, and these nagaram had a corporate body consisting of merchants and whose members were called Nagarattar.
There has been a long tradition of movement of traders, individually and collectively, over long distances within the Tamil country and between the Tamil country and Kerala, Karnataka and Andhra regions.
This phenomena accelerated during the Chola period due to the demand for several products like spices, aromatics, incense, horse, gents and textiles.
SANGAM AGE
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Critically evaluate the achievements of the Cholas. [1998, 60m]
Assess the importance of the Cholas in the history of South India. [1996, 60m]
Critically assess the period of the Cholas in the history of South India. [1991, 60m]
Critically assess the period of the Cholas in the history of South India.
Admin - Centralized, Village Assemblies, LSG, Democratic.
Arch - Dravidian temple climax - Vimana height 66m.
Music, Dance, Devadasi, Paintings. Stone, Metal Sculpture.
Culture beyond Indian frontiers. Dravidian Culture crystalline.
Satthavahas: A number of traders earned their living by sea-routes. Sea-faring was risk hut highly profitable as it was very cheap. The traders who took full advantage of this and became enormously rich were often designated as masattuvan in Tamil and as setthis and satthavahas in Prakrit.
After the Karaikal Cholas, Chola dynasty remained in a state of political dormancy for centuries. It re-emerged under Vijalaya who conquered Tanjore in 850. But the greatest Chola rulers were Raja Raja I and his son Rajendra I. They expanded and strengthened Chola empire.
Describe the development of Chola power under Rajaraja and Rajendra I. Form an estimate of their cultural contributions. [1980, 60m]
Discuss the contribution of Rajaraja I and Rajendra I for the expansion of the Chola Empire. Analyse the causes and impact of the naval expeditions of the Cholas. [1993, 60m]
Raja Raja I with his ability, prowess and military skills soon snatched back the lost territories which the Chola had lost. Some of his important military conquests were -
He first led the subjugation of Cheras. He destroyed Chera fleet at Trivandrum and attacked Quilon (Kollam).
After that he captured Madurai and defeated the Pandya king AMARBHUJANGA.
Taking advantage of the fact that Sri Lanka was in a state of complete political disarray, he invaded island and annexed its Northern part which became a Chola province and hence he acquired the title of MUMMADI Chola-Mandalam.
He then overran the Eastern Chalukyan country of Vengi.
Some sources reveal that one of his naval exploits was the conquest of Maldive Islands.
Rajendra I carried on his father's aggressive expansionist policies. He carried out various military and naval expeditions which further expanded the Chola empire. Some of his expeditions were:
He conquered Orissa, Bengal, Burma and Andaman Nicobar islands and took the Chola dynasty to its zenith.
He annexed the whole of SL, its northern part having been previously conquered.
He also asserted Chola supremacy over the kings of Kerala and the Pandyan country.
He also turned his attention towards north and in no time his armies marched triumphantly into and invaded the dominions of Pala king, Mahipala. It was a march across Kalinga to Bengal, in which Chola armies crossed the Ganga. After the conquest Rajendra I acquired the title of Gangaikondacholapuram.
The Cholas not only had huge army but also possessed a vast navy. Rajendra I also led a naval expedition against the revived Sri Vijaya Empire which extended over the Malay peninsula, Sumatra, Java and neighbouring islands.
There is a debate among historians regarding the causes behind these naval expeditions of the Cholas.
According to Satish Chandra, the cause behind the conquest of Sri Vijaya Empire could be the Chola eagerness to remove obstacles for Indian traders and to expand Chola trade to China.
Nilakantha Sastri suggests the conquest might have been caused by Sri Vijaya empire's attempt to cause obstacle in the way of Chola traders to trade with the east or, he argued it could be result of simple desire on the part of Rajendra I to extend his 'digvijaya' to far off places.
In case of SL, two main causes must have propelled it. One, Mantai (Mannar) was an important entrepot (port of trade) of maritime trade. Two, it could allow the Cholas to control the pearl fisheries of Gulf of Mannar. Thus, the Chola navy had converted Bay of Bengal into a 'Chola Lake'.
Assess the contribution of the Cholas in the expansion of Indian culture outside India. [2011, 30m]
These naval expeditions led to expansion of Chola empire up to the SE Asia.
It facilitated the maritime trade immensely. Trade in ivory and spices increased and Cholas started trading directly with China.
These successful naval expeditions further led to development and progress in shipping.
It led to exchange of ideas and cultural traits between these two regions and helped in indigenisation of SE Asia.
Indian languages like Sanskrit, Pali and Tamil had a considerable long term impact upon the linguistic and intellectual traditions of SE Asia.
Similarly there are many surviving examples of temples built in Dravidian style at Vietnam, Cambodia, Malaysia and SL.
Therefore, Cholas contributed immensely in expansion of Indian culture.
Discuss the ancient Indian contacts with South-East Asia with reference to causes, chronology and original home of the migrants. What was the impact of these contacts on the art of Kambuja and Java? [1980, 60m]
Discuss the cultural impact of India of the South-East Asia during the ancient period. [1982, 60m]
How did Indian culture spread in the South-east Asiatic countries during the Gupta Age? [1997, 60m]
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