SYLLABUS:
The early administrative structure; From diarchy to direct control; The Regulating Act (1773); The Pitt’s India Act (1784);
The Charter Act (1833); The voice of free trade and the changing character of British colonial rule; The English utilitarian and India;
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MAINS QUESTIONS:
“The Dual System of Government was a complete failure from the outset. In the first place, the abuse of the private trade reached a greater height than ever. In the second place, the demands of the Company for the increase led to gross oppression of the peasantry.” Examine
The Dual System of Government in Bengal was the brainchild of Lord Clive.
The Diwani (Fiscal) was carried out by the company so Company was Diwan.
The Nizamat (territorial) jurisdiction was carried out by these decrepit Indians so they were Nizam.
So, this system of separate Diwan and Nizam is called Dual Administration. However, the real authority was East India Company in the Nizamat also.
In the first place, the abuse of the private trade reached a greater height than ever.
The biggest fall out of this system was that the Indian Merchants were reduced to beggars. On the one side, British kept enjoying the duty free trade; the Indian merchants were to pay around 40% of the revenue.
The Officials of the British East India Company such as Lord Clive became extremely rich due to the clandestine private trade
In the second place, the demands of the Company for the increase led to gross oppression of the peasantry.
The peasants were now under the British revenue collection. The British left no stone unturned to extract each penny. There was zero activity in the name of development so Peasants started turning beggars.
The new confusing administrative machinery which was not properly set up created chaos.
This was the beginning of the Economic loot from India, which made England the wealthiest country in the world in the 19th and 20th century. The consequence of this steady drain upon the production of the country soon began to be felt.
Describe how the East India Company was managed initially.
Administration of the East India Company in England was managed by a body of 24 directors called Court of Directors.
This Court of Directors was elected by shareholders of the company on annual basis. The collective body of these shareholders was called Court of Proprietors.
In India, three presidencies were established at Bombay, Madras and Kolkata under a President called Governor General and his Council or Governor in-council.
These presidencies were independent of each other and each of them was an absolute government in its own limits, only responsible to the Court of Directors in England.
How could the history of parliamentary democracy be traced in India?
The Regulating Act of 1773 marks the beginning of British parliamentary control over the affairs of the East India Company.
The Charter Act of 1833 terminated the trading rights of the Company.
Indian Council Act, 1861 - strengthened the Viceroy’s authority over his executive council by substituting “portfolio” or departmental system for corporate functioning
At its very first session, the Indian National Congress passed a resolution asking for the right to discuss the budget.
Ministry of Law and Justice is the oldest limb of the Government of India dating back to the Charter Act of 1833.
The said Act vested for the first time legislative power in a single authority, namely the Governor General of Council. After the commencement of the Government of India Act, 1919 the legislative power was exercised by the Indian Legislature constituted there under.
“The need to impose greater parliamentary control over the Company’s affairs increased during the decades (1773 – 1853) after Plassey.” Elucidate. [2016]
“The object of the Act (Regulating) was good, but system that it established was imperfect.” Comment. [2004, 20m]
By 1773 the East India Company was in dire financial straits. The Company was important to Britain because it was a monopoly trading company in India and in the east and many influential people were shareholders.
The Company paid £400,000 annually to the government to maintain the monopoly but had been unable to meet its commitments because of the loss of tea sales to America since 1768.
About 85% of all the tea in America was smuggled Dutch tea. The East India Company owed money to both the Bank of England and the government. Lord North decided to overhaul the management of the East India Company with the Regulating Act.
The provisions of the Act were directed mainly to the malpractice and corruption of the company officials. The Act, however, failed to stop corruption and it was practiced rampantly by all from the Governor General at the top to the lowest district officials. Major charges brought against Hastings in his impeachment trial were those on corruption.
Corruption divided the Council into two mutually hostile factions- the Hastings group and Francis group. The issues of their fighting were corruption charges against each other. Consequently, Pitt's India act, 1784 had to be enacted to fight corruption and to do that an incorruptible person, Lord Cornwallis, was appointed with specific references to bring order in the corruption ridden polity established by the company.
Regulating Act of 1773 was the first landmark in the constitutional development of India. Via this act, the British Parliament for the first time interfered into affairs of India. What was the need of this act and what were its contents?
The Dual system of administration had various problems which ultimately led to the Regulating Act 1773.
This system not only created confusion but also left the people hapless against oppression by both company and nawabs.
The servants of the company had become corrupt. Many of them retired and took away heaps of wealth to England and lived like Indian Nawabs, thus correctly nicknamed “English Nawabs” in England.
The corruption was so much prevalent that the servants of the company led it on the brink of financial bankruptcy in early 1770s.
Further, the famine of 1770 also reduced the revenue.
In August 1772, the East India Company applied for a loan of One Million Pounds to the British government.
The key provisions of this act were:
Creation of Office of Governor of the Presidency of Fort William. He was to be assisted by an executive council of four members.
Establishment of Supreme Court at Calcutta. It was given supreme judiciary over all British subjects including the provinces of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa.
Increased control over company. The system of nominating high officials of the Company, Judges, and Member of the Court of Directors started. The court of directors was also required to report on company’s revenue, civil, and military affairs in India.
It was the first attempt of British government to centralize the administrative machinery in India.
However, there was nothing in the act which could address the people of India, who were paying revenue to the company but now were dying in starvation in Bengal, Bihar and Orissa.
This act had some defects which were addressed in following acts:
The Amending Act of 1781 reduced the powers of Supreme Court much below Governor General in Council (to prevent tussle).
The Pitts India Act 1784 gave veto power to the Governor General and reduced council to three members (to strengthen the position of GG) and the presidencies were made subordinate to the Governor General.
Analyse Failure & Significance of Pitts India Act 1784.
Pitts India Act made company directly subservient to British Government for which a Board of Control was created. In this dual control, company was represented by Court of Directors.
“An Act for the better Regulation and Management of the Affairs of the East India Company and of the British Possessions in India, and for establishing a Court of Judicature for the more speedy and effectual Trial of Persons accused of Offences committed in the East Indies”.
Failure: | Significance: |
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What were the provisions of Charter Act of 1793?
Gave the East India Company a monopoly to trade with East for a period of 20 years.
It gave powers to the Governor General to override his council. It also empowered him to exercise effective control over the Presidencies.
All laws were to be printed with translation in Indian Languages so that people could know their rights, privileges and immunities. Through this Act the British introduced the concept of a civil law enacted by a secular human agency, i.e., the government and applied universally in place of the personal rule of the past rulers.
Separation of revenue and judiciary functions - reorganized the courts and redefined their jurisdictions.
The company, after paying the necessary expenses, interest, dividend, salaries, etc from the Indian Revenues will pay 5 Lakh British pounds annually out of the surplus revenue to the British Government. All these were to be borne by the Indian Exchequer.
If a high official departed from India without permission, it was to be treated as resignation.
From the time the Company established its rule in Bengal in the mid-1760s, its activities were closely watched and debated in England. The greed and corruption of Company officials were widely publicised in the press. The British Parliament thus forced the Company to produce regular reports on the administration of India and appointed committees to enquire into the affairs of the Company. The Fifth Report submitted to the British parliament in 1813 was one such report produced by a Select Committee.
“The forces of free trade and the British determination to create a political and administrative environment conductive to trade and investment had shaped the British policy towards India in the first half of the nineteenth century”. Elucidate. [2012, 10m]
The Charter Act of 1813 allowed the British subjects access to Indian shore with their ship. Why was this charter needed? List its various provisions.
Napoleon Bonaparte had put in place the Berlin decree of 1806 & Milan Decree of 1807, which forbade the import of British goods into European countries allied with or dependent upon France, and thus installed the so called Continental System in Europe.
Due to these hardships, the British Traders demanded entry to the ports of Asia and dissolve the monopoly of the East India Company. Also the theory of Free Trade policy of Adam Smith had become quite popular now.
Charter act of 1813 ended the monopoly of the East India Company in India, however the company’s monopoly in trade with china and trade in tea with India was kept intact. This was the most important development and it threw open the trade of India to all the British citizens.
It gave permission to Christian Missionaries to go to India for promoting moral and religious development.
The company debt was to be reduced and dividend was fixed @10.5% per annum.
There was also a provision that Company should invest Rs. 1 Lakh every year on the education of Indians.
The Act also empowered the Local Governments in India to impose taxes on persons and to punish those who did not pay them.
Nothing substantial was changed in terms of governance in India except that the Charter Act 1813 for the first time explicitly defined the constitutional position of the British territories in India.
“The Charter Act of 1833 rung down the curtain on the company’s trade and introduced a new concept of government in India.” Substantiate.
The early decades of 19th century were the times of Reforms in England. The Whigs had come to power and social reform and liberal policies were in the air. The influence of free-traders, Benthanite ideas, Reform Act of 1832 etc opined about the end of monopoly enjoyed by private competition like EIC.
The Charter act of 1833 (also called St. Helene Act) was one in the series of acts that British parliament passed every 20 years from 1773 which gave rights to East India Company to do trade. With each charter act, British parliament diminished the privileges enjoyed by Company.
It terminated the trading rights of the Company and rendered it merely an administrative agency of the Crown in India. The free trade merchants believed that India would be a good market for British goods and supplier of raw materials if the company shifted attention from its functions as a trader to those of a ruler. The Act took a step in setting administrative arrangement in India.
The rising influx of Britishers in India and the increasing company's territories in India under 'British Paramountcy' demanded a uniform set of administration in the country. The Governor-General of Bengal became the Governor-General of India. Lord William Bentinck became the first GG of India. The Governors of Bombay and Madras were completely subordinated to him. This strengthened the colonial machinery by forming a centralized administration.
This act for the first time separated the legislative functions of the Governor General in Council from the executive functions.
The first Law Commission was established, under the Chairmanship of Lord Macaulay which recommended codification of the Penal Code and the Criminal Procedure Code.
Further the most important provision (Sec 87) was the introduction of limited competition for the services under the company rule where no distinctions on race, caste, religion, etc will be made.
A position for secretary of state was instituted in British cabinet. Also, the charter abolished the practice of SLAVERY in India.
On the flip side, it removed the restrictions on the immigration of and acquisition of property and land by Europeans. Thus, people from Britain were legally allowed to settle down in India and colonization of India gained more pace.
On a whole, the act certainly brought a new dimension to the rule of British in India.
The charter act of 1853 marked the beginning of Parliamentary system in India.
This was for the first time, that this charter act, unlike other charter acts, did not fix any limit for the continuance of the administration of the company in India. What was the significance of Charter Act 1853?
By this time, the administrative situation got hard due to annexation of new territories to the company’s possession in India. Governor General was empowered to issue necessary orders for their administration and this resulted in creation of Assam, the central provinces, and Burma.
The Governor General was relieved of the administrative duties of Bengal. He was to devote his whole time to work for the Government of India.
Further, marks the beginning of Parliamentary system in India because of the key feature that Legislative Council was clearly distinguished from the Executive Council.
The Charter Act 1853 indicated clearly that the rule of the Company was not going to last a long time. The power and influence of the company were curtailed.
Reduction in Number of Directors from 24 to 18 of which British Crown could nominate six Directors. However, it deprived the Court of Directors of its right of Patronage to Indian appointments. This was the birth of civil services which was thrown for open competition in 1854.
| Charter Act of 1793 | Charter Act of 1813 | Charter Act of 1833 | Charter Act 1853 |
Trade Monopoly | Given to EIC for 20 years. | Ended except for tea with India. | Trade terminated totally. | Soon even rule of Company to end. |
Governor General | Override his council. Control over Presidencies. |
| Now called GG of India. | Full time work for GoI. |
Law | First Civil law by a Secular agency. |
| Law Commission – CPC |
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Separation of Powers/Executive | Judiciary and Revenue separated. | Empowered Local govt to impose tax. | Open Competition introduced. | Legislative Co clearly separated from Executive. |
Company Revenue/Debt | Surplus revenue to be given to Br. Govt. | Debt reduced and dividend fixed at 10.5% |
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Religion/ Colonization |
| Christian Missionaries allowed | British allowed to settle freely. | New states annexed – Assam, Burma. |
What was the Principle of Paramountcy?
Under Lord Hastings (Governor General from 1813 to 1823) a new policy of “paramountcy” was initiated. Now the Company claimed that its authority was paramount or supreme, hence its power was greater than that of Indian states. In order to protect its interests it was justified in annexing or threatening to annex any Indian kingdom. This view continued to guide later British policies as well. This principle however did not go unchallenged. For example, when the British tried to annex the small state of Kitoor (in Karnataka today), Rani Channamma took to arms and led an anti-British resistance movement.
How far is it correct to say that if Clive was the founder of the British Empire in India, Warren Hastings was its administrative organizer? [2016]
Robert Clive, Warren Hastings and Dalhousie contributed immensely in helping the British expand and hold on to power in India. Compare and contrast their role in making India a victim of colonial atrocities.
Examine the essential principles of the Subsidiary Alliance system. How far did it contribute in making the British Company the supreme sovereign authority in India? [2005, 60m]
Lord Clive | Lord Warren Hastings | Lord Cornwallis | Lord Wellesley's | Lord Dalhousie |
Helped British set its foot on India. With BoP he ensured British entry into the finances of India. With BoB = the foot firm in India. | Rohilla war 1774, First Anglo-Maratha war 1776-82, Second Anglo-Mysore war 1780-84. | Mysore Maratha War 1785-1787 (policy of neutrality); Third Anglo Mysore war 1790-92. |
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Dual administration
| Warren Hastings introduced the Izaradari system
| Cornwallis Code of 1793
| Subsidiary Alliance?
| Dalhousie’s Doctrine of Lapse
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Seize of Arcot (1761) during Second Carnatic War. | Hastings curbed Thieves, Dacoits and suppressed Sanyasi revolt. Police of Calcutta was improved. He abolished Tax on marriages. | Police Powers taken away from Zamindars. Police was Europeanized, now paid salary + un-ltd. power to arrest suspects. |
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Robert Clive exacted illegal presents and set a bad precedent for his successors who in order to enrich themselves engineered revolutions in Bengal (1760 & 1764). Clive joined in the general plunder of Bengal by organising the society of trade. The whole Bengal was reduced to the position of an estate of the East India Company. Warren Hastings weakness for money was perhaps as great as Clive’s. He accepted bribes from various Nawabs and Rajas which is said to be about Rs 30 lacs.
While Clive and Hastings were blinded by wealth of India, Dalhousie lacked ethical perspective.
Both of them tried to make Indian administration efficient and effective but from the British point of view. Strong centralised tendencies were clearly visible in their administration.
Interests of Indians were completely neglected and they were left to the whims and wishes of the servants of company who oppressed them at their will.
In order to encapsulate, it would be right to say that both the personalities though had different approach but both had been instrumental in consolidation and expansion of East India Company.
Assess the impact of the utilitarian ideas in molding the British attitude towards India. How did the utilitarian try to solve the problem of land revenue? [1992, 60m]
“Sprung from paternalism, the English Utilitarian philosophy as introduced in India rejected its human warmth between rulers and the ruled.” Comment. [2008, 20m]
The utilitarian philosophy was given by Jeremy Bentham who defined it in simple language as the ‘maximum amount of good for maximum number of people’. It emerged during the 18th and 19th centuries, and resulted in promulgation of several measures related to social reform and liberal policies.
The prominent utilitarian concerned with British rule over India were James Mill and Lord Macaulay. They based their utilitarian principle on ‘paternalistic authoritarian’ rule of British over India.
Paternal rule implied that Indians had always lived in dictatorships and were never accustomed to democratic rule in their country’s history. It was a part of Orientalist ideology which termed the historical rule over India as Oriental Despotism. It was for this reason that it was stated that British would apply their own dictatorial or authoritarian rule over India to be in continuity with its history. It was termed as Paternalistic Authoritarian.
The Utilitarian forwarded this idea by stating that Indians are not fit at the time to govern themselves, for which, the Britishers would introduce the modern western system of administration. They emphasised about the welfare outlook of Britishers, who are civilising the barbaric Indian people with modern means.
To carry forward the idea, they also demanded several reforms for the governance of country:
Education Policy: It was recognized with the Charter Act of 1813 and Rs 1 lakh was earmarked for the purpose. However, it soon became embroiled in Anglicist vs Oriental debate leading to neglect of Education.
Ryotwari System: A new land revenue policy influenced by Reed and Munro’s recommendations was introduced to remove monopoly of Zamindars. The British would directly demand revenue from Ryots or peasants under it. However, it put full burden of revenue on peasants which touched up to 80% of the produce. Agriculture was ruined and peasants escaped to the Jungle and native states.
Mahalwari System: The LRS was made directly with the village as a whole unit. However, this system also resulted in exploitation of peasants due to corruption, high revenue demands, etc and particularly alienated people from the Oudh region and Northern States.
On the other hand, some of the reforms under William Bentinck (1828-35) proved useful for the society such as abolition of sati, abolition of Thugi, opening of new colleges, etc.
Thus, the influence of Utilitarian Philosophy in England and in India had different consequences, where in India it did not lead to widespread benefits of the society, mainly because of the exploitative colonial nature of British Rule.
“James Mill, the apostle of utilitarian philosophy, proposed a revolution of Indian society through the ‘weapon of law’ solely. But in actual policy framing, other influences and considerations weighed much more than the colonial State.” Elucidate. [2015, 20m]
What were the English THEORIES/MODELS of GOVERNANCE?
Utilitarianism (good & efficient govt., min govn),
Evangelicalism (act as Christian Power, allow prostelyzation, values),
PLATONISM / GUARDIANS (act as Trustees till Indians are matured),
BURKEANS (protect the Natural Aristocracy of India i.e. Maharajas, Princes).
Interact with Maharajas for polo, etc and servants, large middle class left. Manual (Hindi) for company officials 1809 to minimise interaction w/ servants (Shout 'Plate' instead of 'please') - difference between command of language and language of command.
1793 Hindu College in Benaras.
Fort William College in 1802 Bengal when British sure of stay in India.
1804 College of EIC at Haleybury to train some Indian officials.
From which school of thought did Bentinck come? Evangelical school of thought - "Improvement" - Legislation to ban Sati.
From which school of thought did Macaulay come? Utilitarian School of thought - Minute of Meeting - English Education.
[British India History – Lec 8: Coming of British - Commercialisation of land, hereditary landed elites - absentee landlords become common. To maximize profit turn to cash crops, famine continues to be a fundamental problem. Basis of British Rule in India superiority to native rulers.]
NATURE of SOCIAL LIFE in BRITISH: [British Indian History – Lec 11]
Importance of HILL Station in British India. Many in North, East, West, and South - the whole govt moved with documents in summer. Escape from debilitating heat, epidemic - cholera, likely to be more in densely populated area. Restorative effects if not curative because of salubrious climate. Most importantly it made them different and separate from Indian. A nursery for raising ruling class! The Hill of Devi by EM Forster (Pvt Secretary to small Indian ruler).
Institution of CLUB present even today - Gymkhana Club, etc - get European food, social retreat. Gin and tonic (cocktail) poured over ice, invented in India, from Quinine actually anti-malarial. US to India in 19th Century biggest export was ICE!
EUGENICS (less reproduction/ sterilization of people w/ less desired traits) and study in COLONIAL ANTHROPOLOGY - measuring skull. Criminalizing of Tribes in India - restrained in Mobility, report to Police Station everyday - Criminal tribes Act, 1871;
Shift from STATUS to CONTRACT. The higher you are in status more are the Taboos, polluting, etc for eg, seen vegetarianism is more prevalent among Brahmins. SANSKRITization (MN Srinivas) a way for upward mobility. Major instrument for regulating contracts is COURTS. In case of Status the person sits on HUNGER Strike in front of other persons doors and everyone in society comes to know - death of Brahmin (hire a Brahmin ~ Surrogate Brahmin) is going to damn you forever - no legal institution involved here. This is what MKG would use later. Note: Customs and Convention varied across due to various communities;
Concept of Boarding Schools (difference in conception of Childhood in British and Indian cultures). Most Hill stations Indians were not allowed. Queen Victoria and her Indian servants. Elephant backed TIGER Hunting. To make all of these institutions functional you need large class of educated servants!
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