SYLLABUS:
The beginning of revolutionary extremism in India; The Revolutionaries: Bengal, Punjab, Maharashtra, U.P, Madras, Outside India.
The Left: The Left within the Congress: JLN, SCB, CSP; The Communist Party of India, other left parties. The election of 1937 and the formation of ministries; Nationalism and Working class movements; Women and Indian youth and students in Indian politics (1885-1947); Cripps Mission; The Wavell Plan; The Cabinet Mission. Royal Indian Navy Mutiny
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MAINS QUESTIONS
At different periods and at various levels, the National Movement assumed social, cultural and economic dimensions. Amplify. [1988, 60m]
National movement assumed different ideological dimensions at different periods of time. Explain.
Moderates - Extremists - Gandhian - Revolutionary X (pre-20th C and 20th C) - Socialist [ideology, approach, belief, conclude]
“The National Movement has shown concern for problems other than the constitutional one.’ Discuss the factors that helped the rise of a left wing in the Indian National Congress.” Comment. [1990, 60m]
The leaders of the Congress were aware of Socialism from the beginning. Dadabhai Nauroji, for example, had close contacts with British Socialists and attended the Internationalist Social Conference in Amsterdam in 1904. But still early leaders did not seriously concern themselves with the Socialist ideology as it encouraged class struggle.
The clear emergence of the left wing group occurred during the post-first world war years of recession – the period in which the rising prices of commodities and increasing repression of the government played havoc with the lives of Indians. The sudden withdrawal of the Cooperation movement left many frustrated and some of them in Congress chose the path of Socialism.
The emergence of left wing leaders like Nehru and Bose who were elected Congress Presidents and the formation of Congress Socialist Party in 1934 within the Congress helped in turning the socio-economic agenda of the Congress to left.
Assess the role of the Left Wing within the Indian National Congress between 1920 and 1947. [1981, 60m]
Did Jawaharlal Nehru believe in a socialistic approach to Indian and world problems and if so why? [1986, 60m]
What impact did it have on contemporary Indian politics? [1997, 60m]
How far did it influence the programme and policy of the congress. [2006, 60m]
Discuss the nature of the leadership and programme of the Congress Socialist party. [2002, 60m]
The emergence of left-wing group in the congress radicalized its social economic agenda.” Critically evaluate. [2011, 20m] [2015, 10M]
RADICALISATION of SOCIO-ECONOMIC Agenda of Congress / REFLECTION of LEFT WING in CONGRESS:
Most Important: Radical stand on economic and class issues. [Took up cause of workers and peasants, concern for agrarian problem] [KISAN SABHAS].
Gandhiji also turned radically to left in 1930s and 1940s. [Talked of economic equality, condemned exploitation of masses by capitalists & Z].
Felt even on the right wing of leadership and lower rung of Congress cadres. [accepted that poverty & misery of Indian people was the result of not only colonial domination but also of the internal socio-economic structure of Indian society].
Resolution on Fundamental rights and Economic Programme (Karachi session, 1931); Agrarian Programme [in Faizpur session in 1936]. Some important components of this programme were:
Reduction of Land revenue.
Abolition of feudal levies.
Abolition of forced labour.
Fixity of tenure.
Fixation of wages for agricultural labour.
Congress formed in 1937 in several provinces took measures [ameliorate conditions of workers & peasants + rights and interests].
National Planning Committee constituted in 1938 under the President ship of Nehru [1st step in planning process in India, a Socialist vision].
Officially the policy of abolition of Zamindari in 1945 [removal of intermediaries = part of the agrarian reforms].
1st All India State’s people conference in 1936 [open support to people of Pr. states for democratic and socio-economic demands ~influence of left].
AISF, AIWC (women) also reflected left.
However, in several aspects, the radicalisation in socio-economic agenda of Congress did not happen due to necessity to reach compromise among different sections within Congress.
There were conflicts within Congress regarding socio-economic agenda.
Many in Congress still had pro-Zamindari views and they opposed the radical agenda of the Congress.
After the formation of Congress ministry, there was frustration among farmers and industrial workers as steps taken by Congress was not enough to satisfy them.
It failed to show ideological and tactical flexibility.
Wrong perception that masses were ever ready for struggle in any form if only leaders were willing to initiate it.
"Congress Socialist Party stood for a revolutionary struggle to destroy edifices of imperialism I, feudalism F and communalism C in India". Elucidate.
CSP - 1934 by AN Dev, JP, etc. Pandit JLN, SCB were associated indirectly.
It was based on socialist character of Indian struggle. Socialist believed independence = socio-economic and not only political.
Zamindari system was creation of Br Colonial rule. I F C were interlinked -> BR was fanning I and C. CSP believed all three can be removed by socialist ideas and principles.
Evaluate SCB contribution to India's freedom from British rule.
Joined NCM; When NCM was revoked - called it 'National calamity'. President of INC 2x (1938, 1939). Under him INC took decision to extend struggle to NATIVE STATES in 1939.
Forward Bloc, Provisional government of India at Singapore, Led INA. Died Martyr. Ideological difference with MKG but these differences was not disrespect.
“The ideology of Subhash Chandra Bose was a combination of nationalism, fascism and communism.” Comment. [2002, 20m]
Gandhi was hostile to industrialisation, while Bose advocated industrialization, perhaps inspired by soviet progress. He stated, "I am convinced that if we do desire freedom we must be prepared to wade through blood", a statement at odds with Gandhi's philosophy of non-violence. He thus raised the Azad Hind Fauj or the Indian National Army (INA), to free India from British control.
Subhas Chandra Bose's political views were in support of complete freedom for India at the earliest, whereas most of the Congress Committee wanted it in phases, through a Dominion status.
Even though Bose and Mohandas K. Gandhi had differing ideologies, the latter called Bose the "Prince among the Patriots" in 1942. Bose admired Gandhi, recognising his importance as a symbol of Indian nationalism; he called him "The Father of Our Nation" in a radio broadcast.
Bose forged a link with the Muslim League, and decided to launch a civil disobedience movement? Why and how? To further strengthen the Hindu-Muslim pact in Bengal - this was to be done by destroying the Holwell monument that stood in Calcutta as a reminder of a Black hole tragedy which most people believed did never happen and was invented only to tar the memory of Siraj-ud-daula, the last independent ruler of Bengal.
Why did Bose join hands with Axis powers? Bose believed that Germany was going to win. Although he did not like their totalitarianism or racism, he began to nurture the idea that the cause of Indian independence could be furthered with the help of the Axis powers. He was a possibilist who explored alternatives.
IIL needed new leadership and if there was on earth anyone it was Bose. After negotiations with Germans and submarine voyage, Bose was brought to Asia. What did Bose do on reaching SE Asia?
Established Provisional Government of Free India, which was immediately recognised by Japan and later by eight other governments, including Germany and Fascist Italy. And he became the supreme commander of its army, the Azad Hind Fauj (Free India Army) or the Indian National Army.
What were the limited things allowed to Bose to do when in Germany? Allowed to start his Azad Hind Radio and was handed over the Indian POWs captured in North Africa to start an Indian Legion.
Identify the main features of industrial development in India from 1914 to 1947 with special reference to the emergence of a class of factory laborers. [1989, 60m]
Period I (till 1914) was about deindustrialisation in context of handicrafts, trade, arts, etc.
Period II (1915-1939)
During this period a number of events occurred that shaped and conditioned the pattern of industrial development in India. Among these the more important were: The First World War (1914-18), the post-war boom (1919-20), the fluctuating exchange rates (1921-27), the worldwide depression (1929- 33), the adoption of Congress ministries in many provinces.
Up to the First World War, the opposition of the British Government to industrial development in India was open and unconcealed. But the First World War proved an eye-opener to them. First, when the war broke out impels from foreign countries had completely ceased and this brought home the need for developing India industrially.
Secondly, it was necessary for the British ruler to make certain political and economic concessions and promises of concessions to secure the co-operation of the Indian people during the war and in the disturbed period following the war. The economic concessions took the shape of a proclamation by the Government to the effect that in future industrialisation would be promoted by all means.
Thirdly, foreign competition had been affecting British import in India. It was felt that the growth of some industries within India was better than foreign competition displacing British Import. These considerations led to the appointment of the Industrial Commission and the Munitions Board.
The Munitions Board helped the progress of indigenous industries in various ways such as:
(i) a direct purchase of India-made articles and materials of all kinds needed for the army, the civil departments, and the railways;
(ii) the diversion of all orders from the United Kingdom and elsewhere to manufacturers in India; and
(iii) assistance to Indian firms in importing plants or technical experts from abroad.
In fact the Board gave considerable stimulus to certain established industries like cotton, jute, iron and steel, leather, etc. But once the war and the fear that the British Empire might be endangered were over, the concessions in favour of industries were withdrawn. By the middle of 1920, industries were again subjected to the full force of competition.
The rupee exchange rate was fixed 1s. 6d. in place of the pre-war rate 1s. 4d. How damaging to the Indian industries these series of blows were can be realised from the fact that market value of the Rs. 100 share of the Tata Iron and Steel Company, an outstanding leader of the Indian capitalist class, tubbed down to Rs. 10, and it was compelled to go to the London market for a loan. Tariff policy which gave British products an advantage over non-empire products in the empire market now became the key-note of the tariff system.
However, there can be no doubt that in spite of the difficulties and obstacles which India had to face, there was a considerable progress in industrial development during this period.
Period III (1940-1950)
The Second World War gave a considerable impetus to the development of industrial potential; its contribution to actual expansion was not equally great.
Those industries which were already in existence worked to full capacity. New plants were added in several cases and a few basic industries were established.
Labour & Trade Union Movements:
Towards the end of the 19th century, before the Indian nationalist intelligentsia began to associate itself with working class agitations towards the end of the 19th century, there were several agitations, including strike by workers in the textile mills of Bombay, Calcutta, Ahmadabad, Madras and so on, in the railways and in the plantations. However, they were mostly sporadic, spontaneous and unorganized revolts based on immediate economic grievances and had hardly any wider political implications.
The first organized strike by any section of the working class was the signaller’s strike in May 1899 in the Great Indian Peninsular (GIP) Railway and the demands related to wages, hours of work and other conditions of service. Nationalist newspapers such as Tilak’s Mahratta and Kesari cane out fully in support of the strike.
The Swadeshi upsurge of 1903-8 was a distinct landmark in the history of the labour movement. The number of strikes rose sharply and many Swadeshi leaders enthusiastically threw themselves into the tasks of organizing stable trade unions, strikes, legal aid and fund collection drives.
The All-India Trade Union Congress (AITUC) was founded by nationalist leaders on 31 October 1920. The first session of the Congress organised at Bombay was presided over by Lala Lajpat Rai and Dewan Chaman Lal was its general secretary.
The Whitley Commission on Labour or the Royal Commission on labour under the chairmanship of Whitley, was set up in 1929 to inquire into the existing conditions of labour in industrial undertakings and plantations in India.
In 1944, national leaders led by Sardar Vallabhai Patel organised the Indian National Trade Union Congress.
WOMEN
The active participation of Aruna Asaf Ali in 1942 movement symbolized the role of women in India’s freedom struggle. Comment. [2010, 20m]
Aruna Asaf Ali was a woman freedom fighter who in a short time gained prominent position among the freedom fighters. She was inclined towards Socialism.
During Civil Disobedience movement she broke the salt law and was imprisoned. She was not released under Gandhi-Irwin Pact 1931 by stating her as a vagrant. She launched a hunger strike in Tihar Jail in 1932 against the indifferent treatment of political prisoners but she was moved to Ambala jail and later released.
On August 8 1942 Bombay session, Congress passed ‘Quit India Resolution’. British arrested all the prominent leaders of the Congress working committee and thus tried to pre-empt the movement from success. Aruna Asaf Ali presided over the remainder of the session on 9 August and hoisted the Congress flag at the Gowalia Tank maidan (August Kranti Maidan, Mumbai, where Gandhi gave speech on 8 Aug). This marked the commencement of the movement. Infuriated by her strong rebellious action, the police attacked the assembly, targeting tear gas at the people and trampling the flag that she had hoisted. However, the damage was done as there were sparks of protests and demonstrations all over the country.
The Quit India movement of 1942 was different from rest of the movements of freedom struggle because –
It lacked organized leadership.
It was spontaneous.
There was clarity on objectives not on methods.
Oppression by government was at its heights.
There were moral dilemmas and differences in ideologies.
Amid all these difficulties, Aruna Asaf Ali’s work in the movement symbolized the courage and commitment of a women towards liberating the nation.
With the aim to organize the resistance movement she moved from Bombay to Delhi. However, with the danger of being caught by the police who hunted for her, she went underground, thus escaping seizure.
It was while being underground that she edited Congress party’s monthly magazine ‘Inquilab’.
In 1944, she urged the Indian youth to stop the futile discussion of violence and non-violence and participate actively in the freedom struggle. She even turned down Gandhiji’s advice to surrender while leading underground revolutionary activities.
The earlier involvement of women was more of a supportive nature with instance that rose them to level as leadership seen as occasional. But, by the time of QIM, the active participation of women like Aruna Asaf Ali have proved again and again of the higher responsibilities women can assume for nation. It was this gallant behaviour that earned her the title of ‘Heroine of 1942’ movement.
Role of Women in INM in general:
Though the role played by her symbolized the role of women in India’s freedom struggle, role of women was quite limited and mostly of supportive nature. When NCM started in 1921, Gandhi initially prescribed a limited role for women, i.e. of boycott and Swadeshi. Even in CDM, Gandhi did not want to include women in his original core group of volunteers in the Dandi March. The Congress never included women in any decision making process. A frustrated Sarala Devi therefore, had to lament that Congress wanted them to be law breakers only and not law makers.
Other shortcoming was that even the participation of women in anti-imperialist movement increased, they did not use the occasion to raise issues that affected them as women like social and economic discrimination vis-Ã -vis men.
What significant role did women play in the Indian National Movement? [2016]
Write a note on women’s suffrage movement in Indian Independence movement.
1917: The Women’s Indian Association (WIA), with links to the women’s suffrage movement, was formed by Annie Besant, Dorothy Jinrajadasa and Margaret Cousins.
In 1918, the Montagu-Chelmsford commission was sent by the British government to suggest changes to the franchise in India where the WIA, led by Sarojini Naidu, petitioned for women’s right to vote.
In 1921, Madras was the first legislature in British India to pass the women’s suffrage resolution by a considerable majority. This meant that for the first time, women were recognised as ‘people’ by the State, thereby given the right to vote on the same condition as men.
Women suffrage movement in India dates back to the First World War days. The other provinces followed, but not the princely states (which did not have votes for men either).
How many women became Presidents of Congress before Independence of India?
There were only 3 women presidents – Besant, Sarojini Naidu and Nelli Sengupta.
Who was Kamladevi Chattopadhyaya?
Kamaladevi Chattopadhyaya (born Mangalore, 1903). Her father was a senior civil servant and her mother was a supporter of both Pandita Ramabai and Sri Aurobindo. At the age of 11 she was married to Krishna Rao, but he unfortunately died just over a year later. As a child widow and with her father also dead, Kamaladevi moved with her mother to Madras in 1917. Her interest in social work led her to enrol in a Social Work Diploma Course at Bedford College, London. The course in sociology combined with practical training which allowed Kamaladevi to visit slums in London.
Involved in Indian Freedom Movement. After her return to India, Kamaladevi became actively involved with the All-India Women’s Conference (AIWC) and became friends with Margaret Cousins. She became involved in Gandhi’s Salt Satyagraha in 1930 and was arrested for entering the Bombay Stock Exchange to sell packets of salt. In the meantime she had divorced Harindranath. Kamaladevi continued to be engaged in politics and social work, particularly in promoting handicrafts, until her death in 1988.
What due does modern India owe to Kamala? Several cultural institutions in India today exist because of her vision, including the National School of Drama, Sangeet Natak Akademi, Central Cottage Industries Emporium, and the Crafts Council of India. She is most remembered for her contribution to the Indian independence movement; for being the driving force behind the renaissance of Indian handicrafts, handlooms, and theatre in independent India; and for upliftment of the socio-economic standard of Indian women by pioneering the co-operative movement.
What was the Warli movement? Indian Women participated whole heartedly in Warli Movement. The latter was a peasant movement in western India in which the woman’s activist Godavan Parulekar played a most prominent role. The movement was one in a series of movements in which women participated following their radicalisation in the freedom movements such as the Quit India Movement.
Write note on Godavan Parulekar. She worked among the Warlis, between 1945 and 1947 to help them obtain social and economic justice. The daughter of a Pune advocate, Godavan Gokhale received an excellent formal education and was encouraged by her father to think and act independently. After studying law, she passed the bar exam and then requested admission to the Servants of India Society. She became friends with young Communists while she was working among women in Mumbai tenements. It was at this time she met and married the labour leader Shamrao Parulekar. During the war years she was frequently arrested, detained, and imprisoned for her work with labour unions. At the conclusion of the war she joined the Warli peasants as they struggled to escape their status as bonded labour.
Sucheta Kripalani - actively took part in Quit India movement along with Aruna Asaf Ali and Usha Mehta. She courted imprisonment for taking part in freedom struggle. During communal violence Sucheta Kriplani went to Noakhali with Gandhi and worked hard to pacify communities.
Contribution after independence- She was general secretary of Indian National Congress from 1958 to 1960, and Chief Minister of Uttar Pradesh from 1963 to 1967. Sucheta Kripalani was in the words of Indira Gandhi, a person of rare courage and character who brought credit to Indian womanhood.
Durga Bai Deshmukh - She was a follower of Mahatma Gandhi and thus; played active role in Gandhi Satyagraha movement and played role of Indian struggler, a lawyer, a social activist and a politician.
Contribution after independence- She was a lok sabha member as well as member of Planning Commission of India. While being member of Planning Commission she launched a Central Social Welfare Board through which she improved condition of education, women, children, handicap and rehabilitation of needy persons.
Mira Alphonse - She came to India in 1914 and met Shri Aurobindo. She was associated with the work of Shri Aurobindo when he started a philosophical monthly named Arya to express his vision of man and his divine destiny. She played an important role in motivating women like Mrs. Annie Besant and Mrs. Nellie Sen Gupta.
Sister Nivedita (Irish) - She attacked Lord Curzon for the Universities Act of 1904 and partition of Bengal in 1905. She held the British responsible for disastrous state of Indian economy; she attended the Benares Congress in 1905 and supported the Swadeshi Movement. She helped Nationalist groups like the Dawn Society and the Anusilan Samiti. She propagated for the cause of India throughout America and Europe. Swami Vivekananda described her as a real Lioness.
Cornelia Sorabji was the first woman permitted to attend Bombay University, where she excelled. She then went on to become the first Indian woman to study law at Oxford University in 1892. However, women were not awarded degrees by Oxford in those days (a rule that would eventually change 30 years later in 1922), making her unable to practice law in England. Sorabji returned to India in 1894 where she was again barred from practicing her profession. However, this didn’t deter her. She eventually became legal advisor to the government for the purdahnashins — veiled women forbidden by social custom from communicating with males from the outside world. When widowed, these women were often entitled to their husbands’ estates, but their isolation prevented them from seeking legal help to enforce their rights (all lawyers being male). Sorabji tirelessly fought for the rights of the purdahnashins and even earned them the right to be trained in nursing, which gave them the opportunity to work outside their homes.
REVOLUTIONARY MOVEMENTS
Examine the causes of the rise and progress of revolutionary movements in India from 1905 to 1931.
Leaders like VD Savarkar, Barindra Kumar Ghosh, Ashfaq-ula-Khan, Chandrasekhar Azad, Rasbehari Bose, Sardar Bhagat Singh and even Subhash Chandra Bose.
Why did Revolutionary terrorism emerge in India?
Not an isolated phenomenon in the history of modern India = response to the prevailing political, economic and socio-cultural environment prevailing in India.
The colonial British Raj - anti-India, despotic => sense of intense discontent.
The policy of Repression and Suppression - more suffer due to British Raj than calamities - 1896-97 Plague, suffering + insensible behaviour of plague committee led by Mr. Rand => millions died in 1899-1900 famine. 1898, CrPC clause 124(a) - preaching nationalism ~ seditious offence.
The Failure of mainstream nationalist leaders (M&E) => alternative.
The contemporary international developments - revolutionary method ongoing in Ireland against BR; also in Balkan against imperialism of powers like Austria, Hungary. "western bondage of British rule could only be shattered by using western hammer of violence"
The failure of peaceful mass movements such as Swadeshi (1906-08), NCM (1920-22), and CDM (1931) in attaining their objectives => faith that peaceful methods would never succeed against British Raj because it takes a loud noise to make the deaf hear.
The incidents like Surat Split => BR would never allow the peaceful methods to succeed.
The teachings of leaders like Raj Narayan Bose and Ashwini Kumar Dutt in Bengal, Vishnu Shastri Chiplunkar in Maharashtra, Sardar Ajit Singh in Punjab and VO Chidambaram Pillai in Madras.
Describe the changing nature of revolutionary activities in India from 1905 to 1946. (Progress and Evolution) [2008, 60m]
During the initial phase | Gradually |
The revolutionaries didn’t have a proper understanding of nature and character of British rule. Not aware of the strengths and weaknesses of British. Under the impression that assassination of few unpopular British officials would terrify them and British would leave India. | They started understanding the true character of British rule. Shifted focus to spread awakening among the masses. Use of violent methods no longer main identity. That is why, Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt threw bombs on empty chairs of Central legislative assembly in 1929. Their intentions was not to harm anybody. Their only purpose was to draw the attention of people toward the limitation of Trade disputes Bill and Public Safety Bill. |
The RE movement had only local and regional associations such as Mitramela (VD Savarkar, 1899) and Abhinav Bharat (1904). | They developed pan-India. HRA estd. In 1924 was first such organisation. |
didn’t have the proper understanding of the causes of suffering of common masses. Under the impression that the end of British Rule would eliminate all the sufferings of the people. | Influence of socialist ideas. They realised that most of the sufferings of common masses were due to the evils existing in Indian socio-economic structure. Sardar Bhagat Singh and Bhagvati Charan Bohra were prominent social thinkers among revolutionary. |
During the 1940s, the Revolutionaries started working for a full-fledged military solution to the problem of British Colonial Rule.
With the formation of INA (September 1942) by revolutionaries like Ras Behari Bose, Captain Mohan Singh and Shah Nawaz Khan, the RE movement assumed the form of full-fledged military struggle.
The command of INA was later handed over to Bose in 1944. INA tried to overthrow British rule by a direct military invasion.
Ramoshi Movement, 1870s | Hindustan Republican Association (HRA) of 1924 | Hindustan Republican Socialist Association (HRSA) of 1928 | Chittagong Armoury raid, 1930s |
Vasudev Balwant Phadke | Ram Prasad Bismil | Chandrasekhar Azad, Bhagat Singh | Masterda Surya Sen |
Ramoshis were hill tribes of the Western Ghats. They first revolted under their leader Chittu Singh in 1822 resisting the new British pattern of administration. |
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In Bengal Anusilan Samiti and Jugantar were established.
In Maharashtra Savarkar brothers had set up Abhinava Bharat.
In the Madras Presidency, Bharathmatha Association was started by Nilakanta Bramachari.
In Punjab Ajit Singh set up a secret society to spread revolutionary ideas among the youth – Ghadr party.
The RT failed to politically activate the masses.
Yet their deep courage, patriotism, STIRRED the nation, social awakening especially in N India.
Revolutionaries other objective - horrible conditions of Jail.
In January 1946, the RIAF men went on strike in support of their various grievances. But what really posed a real grave challenge to the Raj was the open mutiny in the Royal Indian Navy (RJN) in February 1946.
In Bombay the naval ratings in HMIS Talwar went on hunger strike against bad food and racial discrimination. It was revealed that "majority of ratings [were] politically conscious" and were profoundly influenced by the INA propaganda and ideals
The sympathetic strikes in the air force and army indicated very clearly that the Indian Army was no longer the same "sharp sword of repression" which the British could use as before, if a popular outburst of the 1942 proportions took place again.
“The Royal Indian Navy Revolt was seen as an event which marked the end of the British rule almost as finally as Independence Day.” Explain. [2015, 10m]
"The INA trials were not a question of right or wrong of INA men's actions but was looked upon by Indian leaders as a question of England vs India." Explain.
1st part - Surrender to INA trial at Red Fort. This captured imagination of people. Committee under BHULABHAI DESAI. Not about right or wrong, now it was about India vs British. Link with RIN revolt. 1966, Br PM conceded to Government of Bengal that INA was major reason behind Br leaving India.
Royal Indian Navy’s uprisings started on 22 February, 1946 on board HMS Talwar. It is described as last nail in the coffin of British Rule in India.
Causes of Royal Indian Navy’s uprisings in 1946:
Lack of facilities like good food, stay and hygiene
Blatant racism exercised by white commanding officers on navy towards their subordinates
Discontent over the plan to use RIN in South East Asia
Rising Nationalism had begun to affect naval men
The decision of British to conduct the trial of captured soldiers and officers of INA
Spark was provided when a sailor on board HMS Talwar was punished for writing nationalist message on ship.
Its consequences:
Naval ratings engaged in clash with British superiors
Created deep concerns about loyalty of Indian armed forces to British
Virtual paralysis of urban centres like Mumbai and Karachi where the mutiny was the strongest – supported by working class and nationalists in general
British were for first time forced to adopt a conciliatory stance and agreed to number of grievances related to working conditions of ratings (sailors)
Significance:
Shook the military establishment of British in India.
Showed the percolation of Nationalism among Armed forces and made British realise that their days in India are numbered – in a way expedited the process of transfer of poer
It clearly portrayed an example of unity among Indians
Was it was a watershed moment? Gandhi and other Congress leaders criticized it. Yet it fired the spirit of people and hastened the movement of independence.
How far is it correct to say that the sailors who took part in Royal Indian Navy revolt were some of the unsung heroes of the freedom struggle?
RIN - 18 February 1846 aboard HMS Talwar at Bombay; very soon revolt spread to Karachi and other ports. Discriminatory conditions + other suffering formed the background of revolt.
Reality is it was rise of nationalist awakening by INA. INA RAS BEHARI, Captain MOHAN - under SCB overtake military. INA trial awakening - triggered RIN revolt.
Impact was phenomenal - last nail in the coffin of Br. Indian Empire; span less than 2 year Br rule came to an end.
Unsung - could not be appreciated because of discipline in armed forces. Such appreciation would have been disastrous for independent India.
What was the joint League-Congress scheme for constitutional reforms well known as? How did government respond to the demands?
The Lucknow Pact of 1916 and it demanded representative government and dominion status for India. The principle of separate electorate was accepted, and proportional representation in both imperial and provincial legislature was agreed upon.
Did the Muslim League supported the Home Rule agitation started by Annie Besant in 1917?
Yes. But the outbreak of communal riots in Bihar, United Provinces and Bengal soon after this rapprochement revealed the continuing disjunction between the masses and their leaders.
When did the leaders lingering faith in constitutional politics suffer a further jolt?
When the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms in 1919 totally disregarded the Lucknow Pact and the Muslim University Bill passed in September 1920 provided for a non-affiliating university under strict government control.
Why for the first time Muslim League in December 1918 at its Delhi session invite the ulama?
To give them public prominence. The defeat of Turkey created the spectre of Islam in danger, an issue that could be used to mobilise mass support. It led to the context for first mass agitation (Khilafat) to forge political unity among a divided Muslim community.
Why did the Muslim League celebrate the “Deliverance Day” in British India?
In 1937 elections were held under the provisions of the Government of India Act of 1935. Congress Ministries were formed in seven states of India. In 1939 the Second World War broke out. The British Government without consulting the people of India involved the country in the war. The Congress vehemently opposed it and as a mark of protest the Congress Ministries in the Provinces resigned on 12 December 1939. The Muslim League celebrated that day as the Deliverance Day. In March 1940 the Muslim League demanded the creation of Pakistan.
"Despite the fact that the Muslims and Hindus fought against British in the revolt of 1857, a separatist movement started soon after, resulting in the partition of India". Comment.
Br. Commander Aitchison commented - we couldn’t use H against M.
Activities of Sir Syed Ahmed Khan - friend of H-M unity till 1884; enemy of it after 1888. Socio cultural movement for advancement of Muslim. Hindu society was taken as reference => led to separatism coming in Muslim.
Partition of Bengal, Separate electorate; 1937 Congress success, Muslim failure; Lahore resolution, Karachi resolution - DAD - POI.
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