Ancient History [AH] - Sources

HISTORY teaches us that societies that last the longest are the ones that treat water with respect. We seem to have forgotten the lesson.

Sources are not finite, sources are not complete, Sources are relatively indefinite (fragmentary) - need constant revisit. Example: Cambridge history of early India (supplementary book on IVC) - 1921 Wheeler discovery.

Combined method of Indology: 1. textual with linguistic and philological analysis. 2. then written verified with field archaeology, ethnography, visual documents.

• Careful and necessary to evaluate History:

Inscriptions / Edicts of Asoka = contemporary, by Asoka, say him as: perpetrators of wars, left deep remorse, and later he embraced Buddhism vs Buddhist Literature = secondary, after reign of Asoka, say him as: violent who killed many of his brothers, once sat on throne, became pious under influence of Buddhism.

Classify the sources of Indian History.

Literary Sources	Archaeological Sources
Indian Foreign Sources Secular Religious Puranas Some came some did not	Coins Inscriptions Monuments Visual Arts Field Excavations Lack of Sources (Past) | Overload of sources (current)

Differentiate between Primary and Secondary Sources of History.

Primary Sources	Secondary Sources
Contains first-hand account left behind by individual or by a non-living source such as monument, coins, seals. Rare. Contemporary. Time period covered is shorter. Much detailed info. Most archaeological sources fall in this. Can suffer from limitation of personal bias of writer. Can provide accurate info about event.	Contains info drawn from other sources - the writer no personally present when particular development took place. Many. Different period. Much concise period since long period is covered. Archaeological sources rarely are secondary. Example - Rudradaman inscription. Biases hardly found. Enjoys the benefit of critical examination of various evidences.

Aihole inscription, Karnataka: written in Sanskrit and it is in Kannada script. Many inscriptions found at Aihole, but this found at Meguti Temple popularly known as Aihole inscription, witness for the many historical events of Chalukyas. A mention about the defeat of Harshavardhana by Pulikeshi II. A mention about the victory of Chalukyas on Pallavas. A mention about shifting of capital from Aihole to Badami by Pulikeshi. There is mention about the poet Kalidasa.

Epigraphy - study of inscriptions.

1. Royal - statements of Royal authority - Asoka edicts.
2. Prashastis - praises of king - Allahabad inscription of Samudragupta.
3. Admin - record transaction of landed properties - largest# - cut-plates.
4. Personal - local heroes / act of donation.

Numismatics - study of coins.

“Reconstruction of Early Indian history is hardly possible without the help of inscriptions and coins.” Discuss. [2007, 60m]

Coins as source of history

Inscriptions as source of history

Throw light on knowledge of metal during a particular time period. Large #of Au, Ag coins reveal the level of prosperity. It also indicates trade and commerce were well developed. High level of impurity in coins imply prosperity was low. Help in reconstructing dynastic history. Title of rulers help in understanding their political status. Religious and cultural symbol helps in social history. [Kushanas] Throw light on military conquest. [Samudragupta] Throw light on script and languages, art.

Foreign relations of India rulers - 13th MRE mention 5 contemporary rulers to whose court Asoka sent emissaries. Besanagar inscription was instilled by Heliodorus [under Sunga king]. Material culture [Cu plates, Stone pillars]. Throw light on political life and admin systems - duties/responsibilities of official awa designation. Socio-cultural and religious info - 'Sati' mentioned in Eran inscription. Military Achievements - Allahabad inscription, Aihole inscription. Also Cross check conflicting claims. Throw light on language or script. Writing skills (calligraphy) - not a single mistake in Asokan inscriptions Provide much more reliable info than literature - #1. free from interpolations and extrapolations since these can be easily identified. Much more info than literature - geo location; boundaries. Donative records tell us about ajivika sect; Time period ascertained through scientific examination.

How does archaeology help in reconstructing history? Discuss the emerging areas in it.

Archaeology usually provides an anonymous history, one that sheds light on cultural processes rather than events. It is the only source for prehistory, the longest part of the human past, during which many discoveries and developments took place.

Historians, anthropologists, archaeologists understand 'culture' as something that includes all patterns of people's learnt behaviour, the ways of thinking and doing things that they learn from the social group of which they are a part.

Field Archaeology	Scientific techniques	Ethno-archaeology	Cognitive archaeology	Palaeo-ontology /Pathology
Deals with exploration and excavation of sites. Recording is very important because excavation is destructive - some features of layers have to be destroyed as archaeologists move from one layer to another and equally important is publication of results else none would know what was discovered at the site. Non-destructive methods include remote-sensing and regional surveys and are used increasingly.	C-14 or radiocarbon dating (living beings), thermo-luminescence, potassium-argon, electron spin resonance. Chemical analysis - for example, the decomposition of animal excreta increases the nitrogen content in the soil. At the Chalcolithic site of Inamgaon in Maharashtra, the soil in the courtyard had higher nitrogen content than that inside the house. This shows that people tied their animals in their courtyards.	Studies behaviour of living communities in order to interpret the archaeological evidence related to communities of the past. For instance: a tradition of carnelian bead manufacturing exists in Khambhat, in Gujarat, today. Studying modern bead making here can give clue about the way in which the Harappan beads may have been made.	Deals with ways of thinking, beliefs, and religion. Although a large number of religious texts are available for ancient and early medieval India, an exclusively text-based view of religion will not tell us everything we want to know about religious practice.	Study of remains of dead organism over enormous spans of time. The joints of animals used for agriculture or draught purposes get fused and can be identified. Diseases such as arthritis, tuberculosis leave their marks on bones and Palaeo-pathology studies them. Since food and nutrition are related to social standing, assessing the nutritional inputs in the bones of men and women at a site can indicate whether there were marked status differences between groups of people or between men and women.

Literary sources: Indigenous: Primary and secondary; poetry, scientific literature, literature, literature in regional languages, religious literature. Foreign accounts: Greek, Chinese and Arab writers.

In what ways are the accounts of the Graeco Romans and the Chinese helpful in reconstructing the social history of India? How far is their information corroborated by other Contemporary sources? [2009, 60m]

Greco-Roman Accounts	Chinese Accounts	Persian and Arab Accounts
Herodotus - 'Historica' - mentions politico-admin, socio-cultural and economic life of India but never visited India. Megasthenes - 'Indika' - refer Mauryas Pliny - 'Natural History' - economic life of India in 7th C AD. Mention of flow of huge amount of Roman gold. Anonymous - 'Periplus of the Erythrean Sea' (Travels across Red Sea). 1st C AD, provide info. About Indian ports - Korkai, Arikamedu, Tamralipti, Baruch, Sopara, Cambay, items of X, I. Marco Polo	Fahien - 'Fu-Yo-ki' - visited in 5th C AD. Mentions Ujjain (2nd capial of Guptas), Chandallas, Brahmanas (moral, didn't eat garlic), sufficient resources and happy people. Hieun Tsang - reign of Harshavardhana. Lived in India for 16 years, visited Deccan, studied at and wrote about Nalanda. Itsing - visited in 672 AD - mentions monastery established by Shri Gupta (consider to be founder of Gupta).	Al Suleman - 815 AD - wrote about Rastrakuta kingdom and Gurjara Pratiharas. Al Masudi - 967 AD - Gurjara Pratihara kingdom, very powerful King Mihir Boja. Al Beruni - during Ghazni time, lived for decade in India. Anonymous - 'Hud Hud al alab' - a text on Geography with one chapter on India. Ibn Batuta - 14th C Moroccon traveller. Jewish merchants - trade letters or business letters - who came to India in 11th to 12th C AD .

Critically examine the significance of Literary sources.

Literary sources provide detailed information about

They have their limitations which make it difficult to reconstruct the ancient picture.

politico-administrative - Puranas; Kalhana socio-cultural - Kalidasa' works; mudra-rakshasa; Epics economic - Arthasastra religious life - vedic; Jain Agamas; Buddhist; Technical - Astadhyayi (Panini's); Mahabhasya (Patanjali's); Aryabhata, Varahamihira, Amarsimha; Upveda's (Ayurveda, Gandharva, Shilpa, Dhanur + six vedangas) Without these reconstruction of EIH ~ impossible.

No literary source of any kind is available for pre-vedic age. Do not pay proper attention to chronology rather story-fy. Some bias can be seen in court works / patronized works. Interpolation and extrapolation issues - difficult to identify addition and deletion. [Eg: Jaya - more verses added - Bharat - more verses - Mahabharata, yet authorship to Krishnadwayapayan]. Time period of many important ones is doubtful - Example, Some historians believe Arthasastra as a work of Gupta period and Kalidas lived during Mauryan age. Generally deal with elite class and at times the language is vague.

Can historical narratives remain text-centric for long?

• Historians generally use archaeological evidence selectively as a corroborative source when it matches hypotheses based on their interpretation of texts. In view of the information offered by rapidly growing archaeological data, historical narratives can no longer remain text-centric. A more sophisticated approach towards textual study has to be accompanied by an incorporation of archaeological evidence. This will lead to a more nuanced image of ancient India.

Histories of early India should ideally represent the various regions and communities of the subcontinent in their diversity. However, while the heartlands of great empires and kingdoms are well represented, many regions are not. These have to be brought in. Bringing more people into history requires initiatives to uncover groups that have been subordinated and marginalized. This is not easy, given that a great proportion of the source material available to historians has been created by elite groups and reflects their ideas and interests. Nevertheless, the past of people who have been hidden from history has to be uncovered and written, and these histories must become an integral part of the narrative of the ancient Indian past.

“While  using  the  accounts  of  foreign  writers,  historians  must  distinguish  between statements  based  on hearsay and those  grounded  in  perceptive  observations.” Elaborate with examples. [2014, 15m]

Why Foreign Accounts are important?

1. Not written from within (by Indians who might have some biases) but from an eye (long distance perspective).
2. Encompass not a small region (or narrow) but a vast.

However, there are certain limitations which put these foreign accounts into serious scrutiny like their limited knowledge of Indian languages and their confined area of travel.

• Most of the foreign accounts are based on generalization of concerned writer and his experience with his own society.
• Vedic people are said to be initially not aware of India and gave reference of Elephant as Mrighastin or animal with hand.
• Exaggeration of Nanda army during Alexander invasion such that Alexander’s conquering army feared crossing the Ganges.
• ‘Indica’ of Ktesias (4th C BC) records beliefs of Persians about India and Indians being collected by author while living in comfort of Persian court [as royal physician].
• Fa xian in his book 'Gaoseng Faxian Zhuan' - A Record of Buddhist Kingdoms - says that Buddhism flourished during the Gupta period. Other sources tell during this time Brahmanism was main religion and Buddhism was not so popular.

While above based on hearsay are misleading certain foreign texs describe what writers actually saw with their eyes.

• Indica of Megasthenes gives description of Pataliputra court. It is unavailable though later historians have mentioned it in citing. Certain flaws exist here too like describing non-existence of slavery or 7 caste.
• Writings of Fa-hien, Hieun Tsang and Yijing who travelled India and wrote what they saw. They help in constructing early history of society, Buddhism.

Examine the role of guilds in the political, economic and socio-cultural life of ancient India.

• Autonomous, free Institutions.
• Admin control / power of markets. Banking - Shettis. Transportation (Sarthavaha, Prathama Kulika), trade and commerce.
• Look after Art and Crafts. Donations to monasteries (MANDSAUR Inscription).
• Judiciary.
• Shrenis - army.

On  the  basis  of  contemporary  sources  assess  the  nature  of  banking  and  usury  in ancient India. [2013, 15m]

1. Earliest record derives from Vedic texts of ancient India (2000-1400BC) in which the ‘usurer’ (kusidin) is mentioned several times and interpreted as any lender at interest.
2. More frequent and detailed references to interest payment are to be found in the later Sutra texts (700-100 BC), as well as the Buddhist Jatakas (600-400 BC). It is during this period that the first sentiments of contempt for usury are expressed.
3. For example, Vasistha, a well-known Hindu law-maker of that time, made a special law which forbade the higher castes of Brahmanas (priests) and Kshatriyas (warriors) from being usurers or lenders of interest.
4. Also, in the Jatakas, usury is referred to in a demeaning manner: “hypocritical ascetics are accused of practising it.”
5. By the second century AD, however usury had become a more relative term, as is implied in the ‘laws of Manu’ of that time: stipulated interest rate beyond the legal rate being against (the law), cannot be recovered: they call that a usurious way (of lending).

Additionally:

1. Manusmriti fixes different Roi for B [24%] K [36%] V [48%] S[60%].
2. Arthasastra of Kautilya mentions bankers during Maurya era. ‘Adesha’ = Instruments ~bill of exchange.
3. In Vedic Age loan deeds were called rnapatra.
4. Businessman called Shroffs, Seths, Sahukars, Mahajans, Chettis have been carrying on the business of banking since ancient times.

How far can the ancient Indian Sruti literature be used as historical sources? [2015, 15m]

"Sruti" literally means ‘that which has been heard’. In the Hindu tradition, the Vedas have the status of sruti.

Problems in using the Vedas as historical sources

Upto what extent can it be used as historical sources

Vedic texts comprise a religious literature, and references to possible historical events are a few. The Vedic corpus was not a popular literature and therefore, does not necessarily represent popular ideas or practices. The Vedic literature forms an important part of the Brahmanical tradition. It reflects their religious beliefs, practices and points of view. A major problem in using the Vedas as a source of history is the problem of dating the Rig Veda. The dates that have been suggested for the composition of this text range from 6000 BCE to 1000 BCE. There are several problems in correlating the evidence from the Vedas with archaeology.

The Vedic texts can be used as sources of history for the areas in which they were composed. For example: The family books of the Rig Veda Samhita were composed in the land of sapta-sindhu or the seven rivers that is the Indus, its five tributaries, and the Saraswati (Ghaggar-Hakra). The later Vedic texts were composed in the Indo-Gangetic plain and the upper Ganga Valley. The “Battle of ten kings” may be based on an actual historical incident. The great battle took place on the bank of the river Parushni (Ravi). There are also references which show that the political alliances between the tribes were fluid and shifting. There are references of the assemblies like the sabha (smaller, elite gathering) and samiti (a larger assembly) presided over by the the Rajan, the chieftain. There are also references of cattle rearing, agricultural activity, various craft works, slavery etc which shades important light on the socio-economic life of the contemporary society.

So for constructing the history of the sub-continent it is important to carefully juxtapose the archaeological evidences and the text based evidences and caution should be made while using the ancient Sruti literature as the source of history.

What light do early inscriptions and literature throw on the status of women in politico socio-economic spheres? [2010, 60m]

Puranas - Women and Shudras did not have access to Vedas.

Evaluate  the  ownership  of  land  in  ancient  India  on  the  basis  of  literary  and epigraphic sources. [2013, 15m]

Literary - Vedas - Villages/ tribal divisions/Rajan -> later Vedic - Gramani (head of village) / Bali to Chief (voluntary).

Arthasastra - royal lands / individual lands (pay revenue to Rastra) / Bhaga (king's share of produce).

Smritis - Land Revenue (compulsory)

Epics - take over of land by king except for Brahmanas

Epigraphic - Land grants to Brahmanas (-Mauryan, Guptas)

Discuss the nature, extent and significance of Indian contact with outside world during ancient age.

In spite of being a land of immense resources, India has maintained close contacts with outside world throughout H. The earliest evidence of external contact belong to Palaeolithic age because tools of this age are similar to those found in Iran and Western Asia.

• Nature - diverse and multidimensional - trade and commerce; foreign invasion; diplomatic contacts.
• Economic activities paved way for cultural and political interaction; Beginning from Harappa C, Indians maintained close contacts with Mesopotamia. Dilmund and Makran were intermediate trading stations. Shortughai as a settlement of Harappans. Economic interaction continued during Vedic, Mauryan and other ages.
• Culture - lipstick, coffin burial, vanity case found in IVC (from Chanudaro) reveal interaction with outside world. Greek, Kharosthi, Aramaic scripts used in NW part of empire => India's interaction with Persia. Use of curtain in theaters => Yavanik's = Gandhara S of Art, Mathura Art, Dmaras = gold coins (Persia).
• Political - embassy's in courts - sent/ received; conquering new lands - RAJA RAJA.
• Extent - C Asia, W Asia, E Asia.
• Significance - Indian economy flourished; foreign wealth; level of prosperity; sink of Gold; Urbanization; Art and Craft; Indian culture moved out; Closer contact = enhanced soft power; foreign elements => new ideas and technology; India today is combination of all these - Cosmopolitan culture.

Discuss the changing approaches to the study of early Indian history. [2006, 60m]

Orientalists’ historiography - 18/19 C	Nationalist historiography - 19/20 C	Marxist historiography - 1950s, Religion side-lined
Contribution: collect, edit, and translate ancient texts. f. Asiatic Society of Bengal 1784; recording info by native informants.	Contributions: Weaving together data from texts, inscriptions, coins, and other material remains.	Construction of the history of early India.
Officers of GSI, ASI – unearthing and analysing prehistoric materials. Decipherment of Ashokan Brahmi and Kharoshthi , coins..	Non-monarchical polities discovered/ celebrated to counter the idea that India had only despotic rule. SI brought into narrative.	Uncovering the history of non-elite groups, some of which had suffered subordination and marginalisation.
Writings were rooted in colonial context: The Brahmanical perspective of ancient Sanskrit texts was often uncritically taken as reflecting the Indian past. Indian society was presented as static, and its political systems despotic, over the centuries. Race, religion, and ethnicity were confused with one another, and there was a tendency to exaggerate the impact of foreign influence on ancient India. Classified into Hindu, Muslim, and British periods.	The nationalist tinge in these scholars’ writings: Insistence on indigenous roots of cultural developments. Search for golden ages - exalting the age of the Vedas and the Gupta Empire. Classification in three periods retained. It coalesced with a communal tendency to valorise the ‘Hindu period’ and to project the advent of the Turks and Islam as a calamity and tragedy.	The Marxist emphasised on economic aspect: Texts were sometimes read uncritically, with insufficient attention paid to their problematic chronology and peculiarities of genre. Archaeological data were included, but the basic framework of the historical narrative remained text-centric.

Despite important differences, the major historiographical schools shared similarities. Certain tenets of these schools continue to thrive.

Some of the fundamental premises and methods of Orientalist historiography still hold their ground, and histories of Third World countries such as India remain Eurocentric.

Appeals to the ancient and early medieval past are often dictated by nationalist or communalist agendas. Marxist historiography continues to be an influential force in early Indian historiography.