Syllabus:
Revolution and Counter Revolution (ii) The Russian Revolution of 1917-1921 CHINA - [Colonialism] (iv) The Chinese Revolution of 1949
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Account for the overthrow of the Tsarist regime in Russia. [2009, 30 Marks]
“The Russian Revolution (1917) was an economic explosion hastened by the stupidities of the autocratic Government”. Comment. [2005, 20 Marks]
How grave was the role of Tsar Nicholas in causing Russian Revolution?
Tsar Nicholas II was much more interested in his family life, than matters of the state. He had an obsession with retaining all his privileges and the belief that he was chosen by God to rule. Also, he didn't understand the forces of industrialization and nationalism that were growing throughout Russia. His disregard for the struggles of the people led them to lose faith in him and the long-standing tradition of autocracy. Nicholas was himself suspected to have killed PM Stolypin who had tried to introduce some reforms.
The view is that his deliberate flouting of 1905 promises made it inevitable for Revolution to take place.
What were the weaknesses of the regime between 1905 and 1917?
Failure of land reforms – The peasant population was growing too rapidly for PM Stolypin’s schemes to cope with, and because farming methods were too inefficient to support the growing population.
Industrial Unrest – Workers suffered low wages, poor housing and many accidents. There was wave of industrial strikes set off by the shooting of 270 striking gold miners in Lena goldfields in Siberia (April 1912).
Government repression – The secret police of government rooted out revolutionary among university students and lecturers and deported mass of Jews.
Revival of revolutionary parties – Inspired by Karl Marx Communist Manifesto and Das Capital, rose Lenin and his Bolshevik party who would work full time to bring about revolution. While Bolsheviks believed in peasant revolution, the Mensheviks believed in proletariat revolution (of workers).
What was the role of Rasputin in Czarist Russia, and what influence did he have over the Czar and Czarina?
The Royal family was discredited – Alexandra was a very strong-willed woman, who disliked parliaments and supported absolutism. She attempted to rule absolutely in her husband’s absence by dismissing and electing officials on a whim.
More serious was the royal family’s association with Rasputin, self-professed ‘holy men’. He made himself indispensable to Empress Alexandria by his ability to help the ailing heir to throne, Alexei. Eventually Rasputin became a real power behind the throne, but attracted public criticism by his drunkenness and his numerous affair with court ladies.
Contribution made by women to the success of the Russian Revolution of 1917. |
| "Comrades, Put down your bayonets! Join us" A women’s strike in Petrograd, Russia on 8 March 1917 marked the beginning of the Russian Revolution. These women workers who had taken the initiative with courage and determination set the stage for one of the most important events of 20th century. Contribution made by these women:-
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After the revolution:- |
| Beginning in October 1918, the Soviet Union liberalized divorce and abortion laws, decriminalized homosexuality, permitted cohabitation, and ushered in a host of reforms that instigated a red sexual revolution. |
Impact on Bolshevik Party:- |
| The Bolsheviks had opposed any division of the working class, including separating men and women to put some focus specifically on women’s issues. They thought men and women needed to work together with no division, and because of this, in the party’s early days, there was no literature printed specifically targeting women, and the Bolsheviks refused to create a bureau for women workers. In 1917, they acquiesced to the demands of the Russian feminist movement and created the Women’s Bureau. |
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In Russia, Lenin was “the father of socialism, organizer of the revolution and the founder of the new Russian society.” Examine the statement. [1998, 60 Marks]
Write a critical note on: Lenin’s role in the Russian Revolution of 1917. [1981, 20 Marks]
How did Lenin achieve an abrupt transition from a Monarchical autocratic to a Socialist State? [2016]
“The bold knight, Lenin, having rescued the fair maiden of the Revolution from the evil sorcerer, Kerensky, everyone lived happily hereafter.” Comment. [1983, 20 Marks]
Lenin (1870-1924) was a strong supporter of Marxian socialism. He believed that capitalism would only disappear with a revolution and this was only possible under certain conditions. The socialism party was split between Lenin’s, Bolsheviks, or "majority group" and the Mensheviks, or "minority group". Lenin’s group did not stay the majority, but he kept the name and developed a disciplined, revolutionary group.
The people wanted to see the end of Kerensky's government, the end to the war and they wanted new land distribution. Trotsky and Lenin saw the answer to all these desires in a Bolshevik seizure of power.
From Finland, Lenin urged the Bolshevik committee to plan an armed uprising. Trotsky masterfully executed the revolution. He formed a military-revolutionary committee to head the arming of workers throughout Petrograd. Factory meetings were held to boost the workers' enthusiasm. Finally, on the night of November 6 (or October 26), the combined forces of the Bolshevik soldiers and workers stormed the city and seized government buildings. They went on to gain the majority in the congress and declared Lenin as their new leader.
Analyse the causes of the Russian Revolutions of 1917. Why was the second Revolution Significant in more than one way? [1985, 60m]
The Russian Revolution of 1917 was a single revolution which developed two phases. Elucidate. [1992, 60 Marks]
The first revolution began on 23 February when bread riots broke out in Petrograd. The Tsar sent order for the troops to use force. Soon, however, some of the troops began to refuse to fire at the unarmed crowds. Tsar refused the advice of Duma to set up a constitutional monarchy. On his way back to Petrograd, Tsar abdicated in favour of his brother Grand Duke Michael. However, Michael refused and the Russian Monarchy came to an end.
Was the February Revolution a revolution from above or below, organized or spontaneous?
FROM ABOVE - Conspiracy among the nobles was decisive – nobles, Duma members and generals forced Nicholas to abdicate in order to prevent real mass revolution developing. | Revolution FROM BELOW by the masses was decisive, because it threw the elite into a panic; without the crowds on the streets, there would have been no need for the elite to act. |
ORGANIZED – Bolsheviks had played a vital role in organizing strikes and demonstration. | SPONTANEOUS – there were many activists among the workers who were not affiliated to any political group. |
Workers were motivated by economic considerations rather than politics. “It was an outburst of desperation to secure the basic material needs and a decent standard of living.
What were the causes for the success of Bolshevik Revolution of 1917? Discuss its significance in the history of the world. [1980, 60m]
Examine the causes of the Russian Revolution of 1917 and indicate its significance in world history. [2003, 60 Marks]
In the years leading up to the Russian Revolution of 1917, the country had a succession of wars. These were, The Crimean War (1854-56), The Russo-Turkish War (1877-78), The Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905), and World War I (1914-18). All of these required a lot from the state, including tax dollars and manpower. Russia suffered defeat in all, except against Turkey. This series of war caused great discontent among the people and caused suffering in the country's economy and government.
Along with these wars, there were three major parties that contributed to the cause of the revolution.
First, there were the peasants, who maintained the majority of the population in Russia.
Second, there was a rise of the industrial working class.
Lastly, the tsar of Russia was the cause of much disapproval.
The Russian Revolution of 1917 involved the collapse of an empire under Tsar Nicholas II and the rise of Marxian socialism under Lenin and his Bolsheviks.
Reasons for the success of the October Revolution, 1917:
Weakness of the Provisional Government, economic and social problems and continuation of the war led to growing unrest and support for the Soviets. Led by Lenin, the Bolsheviks seized power.
Significance of the revolution:
It generated a new way of thinking about economy, society and the government. The Communist movement began to grow worldwide, which frightened the capitalist world. Although the strength of Communism did not last, because it existed at all is proof that the Russian Revolution was a major event of the twentieth century.
Were the revolutions of 1917 inevitable?
Evitable | Inevitable |
Although the regime had obvious weaknesses, there were signs that shortly before the WW-I broke out, living standards were improving and given time, the chances of revolution would have diminished. | Tsar’s deliberate flouting of 1905 promises, there was bound to be revolution sooner or later. |
PM Stolypin had introduced some reforms and made determined efforts to win over the peasants. | Russian failures in the war (WW-I) made revolution certain, causing troops and police to mutiny. |
Who were jadidists? How did the 1905 Russian Revolution affect Russian society? Examine.
The Jadids were Muslim modernist reformers within the Russian Empire in the late 19th and early 20th century. Jadids maintained that Muslims in the Russian Empire had entered a period of decay that could only be rectified by the acquisition of a new kind of knowledge and modernist, European-modelled cultural reform. Although there were substantial ideological differences within the movement, Jadids were marked by their widespread use of print media in promoting their messages and advocacy of the usul ul-jadid or "new method" of teaching in the maktabs of the empire, from which the term Jadidism is derived. A leading figure in the efforts to reform education was the Crimean Tatar Ismail Gasprinski.
Impact of 1905 Russian revolution on Russian society:-
It changed the whole gamut about organisation, pattern and structure of Russian society right from status of social groups to social programs in society. It destroyed the roots of social inequality and laid down foundations for classless society.
Worker gained respect and society was organised on equal pay, equal wages, to each according to each’s capacity principles. Basic rights were declared for all and many social benefit programs started.
The women were given more freedom and therefore were successful in achieving independence followed by a higher standing in society.
The Revolution also separated religion from politics. Religion was made a purely private affair. No religious education was imparted in the educational institutions and no public utility was given in the name of religion.
Conclusion:-
The Russian revolution was a turning point in the political, social and economic systems prevalent in world. It not only impacted Russia but forced the world societies to take a note of it through its revolutionary social changes.
“The impact of the French Revolution (1789) was initially confined the Europe, but, that of the Russia Revolution (1917) was global.” – Critically review. [2012, 30 Marks]
“Stalinist Russia was a despotic regime.” Critically examine this view. [1999, 60 Marks]
Krushchev (secret speech) revealed that Stalin's great purges in the late 1930s had almost wiped out the political leadership of the party that had had any connection to the 1917 revolution itself, through the use of coerced confessions and summary executions.
Stalin had actually done more than that. He had sent millions to forced labor camps and had forcibly collectivized the peasantry at enormous human cost. Workers were deprived of all power and of any social or economic rights and expected to out-produce each other for the "glory" of comrade Stalin, who was virtually deified.
"Stalin's method of 'solving' any problem was to increase pressure and terrorism. The "arbitrariness and excesses" of terror impeded economic rationality and led not to increased output, but to the demoralization and paralysis of Russian workers. At a certain stage of economic development, further progress was not possible without some relaxation of terror, and economic incentives such as higher wages and better social welfare.
The ruling class--the high state and party bureaucrats themselves--wished to enjoy their privileges, and so they too wished for some degree of relaxation of fear and suspicion.
Stalin's regime had had nothing to do with socialism. His rule was consolidated--as his liquidation of the old party leadership shows--on the ruins of everything the Bolshevik Party and Russian workers had fought for in 1917.
In the 1930s, Stalin embarked on a plan of hothouse industrial development to "catch up and overtake" the West in 10 years, in order to be able to build in Russia a formidable industrial military machine capable of holding its own against the West, particularly the United States.
This insanely rapid pace of industrial development required the super-exploitation of workers and peasants, and in conditions of backwardness, methods of extreme state coercion to dragoon the population into line.
Dictator Josef Stalin who was responsible for the death of millions during World War II.
“The modern history of China has revolved around the question of how to regain sovereignty, end the humiliation of foreign occupation and bring about equality and development.”
Three important groups can be recognised with their efforts. |
| The foreign occupation of China and its subsequent exploitation, humiliation sparked sense of building the nation.
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The Qing dynasty |
| which faced the wrath of Opium war realised the need to strengthen the system and initiated policies to build a modern administrative system, a new army and an educational system, and set up local assemblies to establish constitutional government. They saw the need to protect China from colonisation. |
Chinese thinkers |
| awakened the masses with their observations and writings regarding colonialism. Thinkers like Confucius influenced the Chinese attitude toward life, provided social standards and laid the basis for political theories and institutions. |
Sun Yat-sen’s ideas |
| became the basis of the political philosophy of the Guomindang (the National People’s Party). They identified the ‘four great needs’ as clothing, food, housing and transportation. After death of Sun Yat Sen, Chiang Kai Shek (1887-1975) emerged as the leader of the Guomindang. He advocated a secular and rational ‘this-worldly’ Confucianism, but also sought to militarise the nation. |
The Communist Party of China, founded 1921 |
| soon after the Russian Revolution. Mao Zedong’s radical approach- A strong peasants’ council (soviet) was organised, united through confiscation and redistribution of land. Mao, unlike other leaders, stressed the need for an independent government and army. He had become aware of women’s problems and supported the emergence of rural women’s associations, promulgated a new marriage law that forbade arranged marriages, stopped purchase or sale of marriage contracts and simplified divorce. |
Opium Wars |
| Critical note on: Importance of the Opium War in the history of China. [1981, 20 Marks] In the Opium Wars, the British (and, in the second war, the French) forced China to make concessions to them. In the First Opium War, Britain gained Hong Kong as a territory and was given the right to trade in more Chinese cities than had previously been the case. In addition, the treaty that ended this war began the system in which foreign powers had the power of extraterritoriality in China. In the Second Opium War, even more cities were opened to European trade and Europeans were given more access to the interior of China. These wars were important in the short run because they helped to expose the weakness of the Chinese government and to weaken it further still. This helped to eventually bring down the Chinese government and throw China into civil war. This civil war, which was interrupted by a long war against Japan, ended up bringing the communists to power in China. The Opium Wars remain significant today because of their effect on China’s attitudes towards foreign powers. China remembers the ways in which it was humiliated in these wars and it distrusts foreign powers in part because it remembers how it was treated in the past. Therefore, these wars have helped to make relations between China and the West more tense than they might otherwise be. |
Treaty of Nanking |
| “The Treaty of Nanking is the basic act in the imposing but unstable structure of international relations which governed China for a hundred years.” Comment. [1984, 20 Marks] The Treaty of Nanking or Nanjing was a peace treaty which ended the First Opium War (1839–42) between the United Kingdom and the Qing dynasty of China on 29 August 1842. It was the first of what the Chinese later called the unequal treaties on the ground that Britain had no obligations in return. |
Half a century of humiliations in the history of China 1842 to 1900 |
| “By 1861, China may be said to have been fully though grudgingly opened to the Westerner.” Comment. [1987, 20 Marks] Why is the period from 1842 to 1900 considered as half a century of humiliations in the history of China? What was the reaction of China? [1988, 60 Marks] The years 1840 to 1860 confronted the Ching dynasty and the people of China with unprecedented crises due to imperialist designs of western powers. Discuss critically. [1980, 60 Marks] Divided into spheres of influence by foreign powers, China in the 19th century presented a sorry spectacle. How did China react to it? [1995, 60 Marks] To what extent did the Western powers bring China under their domination without annexation? [2000, 60 Marks] Most of the imperialist powers, however, refused to relinquish their treaty port rights in China and other Asian countries until the end of World War II. Response: Japan yielded to Western pressure to open to trade while China refused to, and that Japan successfully modernized [Meiji Restoration] while China failed to. |
Treaty Port System |
| How did the Treaty Port System in China develop between 1840 and 1860? What was its inference on Chinese attitude to foreigners? [1982, 60 Marks] In China the initial ports were opened to British traders in 1842 following China’s defeat in the Chinese-British trade conflict known as the first Opium War (1839–42). Other Western nations rapidly followed the British and U.S. examples and gained treaty port privileges for their own citizens not only in China and Japan but also in Vietnam, Korea, and Siam (Thailand). Toward the end of the 19th century, as the Western countries demanded still more concessions from China, the number of Chinese treaty ports grew from 5 in 1842 to more than 50 by 1911. Within the treaty ports, Western subjects had the right of extraterritoriality—i.e., they were under the control of their own consuls and were not subject to the laws of the country in which they resided. Eventually an independent legal, judicial, police, and taxation system developed in each of the ports, although the cities themselves were still nominally considered a part of the country in which they were located. Along with Western municipal institutions came Western ways of life, and many Asians were first acquainted with Western thought and techniques in the treaty ports. Beginning in the late 19th century, treaty port cities such as Shanghai and Guangzhou (Canton) constituted the major areas from which industrialization developed in China. |
Self-strengthening movement |
| Discuss the Self-strengthening movement in China. [1986, 60 Marks] Cause: Foreign imperialism in China, its defeat in the Second Opium War (1860), the humiliating Treaty of Tientsin and the Taiping Rebellion (1850-1864) all exposed the dynasty’s military and technological backwardness, particularly in comparison to European nations. Ideology: push to modernise China, particularly in the fields of industry and defence. The ideology was: ‘Confucian ethics, Western science’. Effects (Fail/ Success): some successful capitalist and military reforms, though most of these were provincially rather than nationally based. It failed to strengthen Qing rule or military power, as suggested by subsequent defeats in two wars (to France in 1884-85 and Japan in 1894-95). Reasons for Failure: lack of Qing support, the decentralised nature of government and its narrow focus.Qing leaders wanted military and economic modernisation but without accompanying social or political reforms. In contrast, sweeping reforms under the Meiji Emperor had transformed Japan – once as backward as China – into a modern military-industrial state, the most advanced in Asia. |
Kuomintang Government 1911 |
| With the proclamation in Nanking of a Chinese Republic with Sun-Yat-Sen as the President in 1911, “the old China wilted rapidly.” Sun Yat-Sen had his base in Guangzhou (Canton). His primary goal was the reunification of the country. To do this, he had to accomplish two key objectives: defeat the Chinese warlords and force out the foreign powers. But first, he had to make the KMT an effective, political and military force, and to do this, he needed outside help. Since he received no help from any of the foreign powers, he welcomed that of the Comintern. |
May 4th Movement of 1919 |
| Student-led movement protested against the unfair treatment of China in the peace treaties following World War I, whereby Japan took over the German concession in Shantung and expanded its control over Manchuria. The May 4th Movement also attacked the privileges of the foreign powers, and made radical and democratic demands for changing the social and political system. |
White Terror, 1927 |
| CCP radicalism - targeted not only foreign privileges and symbols, but also rich Chinese. Wealthy Shanghai industrialists were alarmed and offered to bankroll Chiang if he freed himself from dependence on Moscow. In 1927, when Northern Expedition forces approached Shanghai, the communist-led labor unions rose to take the city from the inside. When Chiang entered the city, he ordered a massacre of the communists. This became known as the "Shanghai massacre" or more commonly "the White Terror." |
Impact of Russian Revolution and Marxism-Leninism on China |
| Many Chinese intellectuals were attracted by Marxism. As with Russian Marxists, the main problem facing the Chinese Marxists was the fact that the vast majority of the population was made up not of workers, but of peasants. Russian Revolution was result of contradiction of Russian society which was prevailing in Russia at that time (haves and haves not or peasantry vs Elite). Czarist regime was corrupt and authoritative. This led to first labour class or Proletariat class revolution of world in Russia. Inspired by Russian Revolution the Chinese-Marxists worked for the liberation of peasants and went to countryside to organize them. |
All long marches begins with small steps. [2010,10] |
| No revolution ever in history of human civilization has happened out of vacuum but is rather a gradual and continuous process. Chinese Revolution, like Russian Revolution was the outcome of already existing strangling situations in China. Besides, Russian revolution also influenced this revolution. Above all, the able leadership of Mao Zedong gave it a true direction. Nationalists led by Chiang Kai Shek were leashing repressions on poor. Mao organized the downtrodden sections of society like workers, poor, villagers, peasants etc. In between China was attacked by Japan in the North which was a start of a long battle. The Communists under Mao considered it better to shift to the north province of Shensi than to waste their energy against nationalists so that they can organize their power. The great march from Kiangsi to Shensi is known as Long March in History. The Long March of Red Army started in March 1934 and lasted until October 1935 when they reached their destination some 8000 miles away. Red Army crossed 24 rivers, 11 provinces, and 18 mountain ranges, some at an altitude of 16,000 feet or more. They were repeatedly involved in battles with Nationalist troops. Out of 100,000 only 30,000 survived to finally reach destination. The March became legend in Chinese Revolution history. During its course, Mao Tse-tung was officially given leadership of the Chinese Communist Party. Later Mao established Peoples Republic of China in 1949 expelling nationalists from mainland China. |
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Trace the distinct phases of the Sino-Japanese War. Assess its political economic and cultural impact on China, both “occupied and free.” Comment. [1992, 20 Marks]
The First Sino-Japanese War | Boxer Rebellion | Second Sino-Japanese War (1937-45) |
Erupted in August 1894 over control of the Korean peninsula. This war ended with a Japanese victory in a little over eight months, despite Japanese forces being greatly outnumbered by the Qing armies. The Treaty of Shimonoseki, signed in April 1895, saw China surrender control of the Liaodong peninsula, west of Korea, and the island of Taiwan. | Boxer Uprising or Yihetuan Movement was a violent anti-foreign, anti-colonial, and anti-Christian uprising that took place in China between 1899 and 1901, towards the end of the Qing dynasty. Six years later, following the disastrous Boxer Rebellion, Japan won the right to station troops in eastern Manchuria, giving them a military stronghold on the Chinese mainland. The collapse of the Qing dynasty in 1911 allowed Japan to further expand its sphere of influence in China. | ‘War of Chinese People’s Resistance against Japanese Aggression’, 20 million casualties. In contrast to the modernised and highly militarised Japanese, Chinese republican forces lacked training, equipment and a strong industrial base. The Japanese used inhumane and sadistic methods during their occupation of China, typified by events like the Nanjing Massacre and their use of human experimentation. This War came to an end in August 1945, after the United States detonated nuclear weapons over Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Russian troops invaded from the north and suppressed Japanese forces in Manchuria, while Japanese forces in China were ordered to surrender to Jiang Jieshi and the Nationalists. |
The war left the Nationalist government in a vulnerable position, while the CCP managed to consolidate and expand their support, placing them in a more favourable position as China moved towards civil war.
Discuss the internal problem of China after the First World War and account for the establishment of Communist rule in the China in 1949. [1979, 60 Marks]
Discuss the circumstances leading to the Chinese Revolution of 1949 and analyse its significance. [2005, 60 Marks]
Review the political circumstances in China in the years 1945-49 leading to the establishment of the Communist rule in the land. How did the United States seek to resolve the conflict between the Nationalists and the communists in the period? [1984, 60 Marks]
Examine the circumstances in china in the years 1945-49. What did the United States do to resolve the conflict between the Nationalists and the Communists there? [2002, 60 Marks]
The People's Republic of China (PRC) was established on October 1, 1949. However, an assessment of Chinese communism cannot begin there. It must begin about 30 years earlier, because the preceding years shaped the PRC as a communist state.
Economic Factors | Social Factors | Political Disorganization | Foreign |
Chinese economy was dominated by agriculture. Crafts were there but they were practiced with primitive and outdated techniques. Heavy revenue burdens were imposed on the Chinese peasants who groaned under the burden. | Chinese society was hierarchical and the upper classes enjoyed higher standard of living. The gentry class dominated the peasants, who made up the vast majority of the population. The urban workers were mostly unskilled and also lived in dire poverty. | The warlords controlled a longer part of the country and the nationalist government which was established. The revolution of 1911 was confined to canton and surroundings. | Foreign powers had divided China into spheres of influence wreaking havoc on Chinese sovereignty. Eg: foreign enclave in the great port city of Shanghai. Also, China in wars with Japan in 1895 and with Russia had lost much of its territories. |
“The announcement of the creation of the Peoples’ Republic of China on October 1, 1959 by Mao Zedong ended the civil war between the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) and the Nationalist Party (KMT).” – Elaborate. [2012, 30 Marks]
“The turn of the tide against the Kuomintang, consequently, was due as much to its weakness as to Communist strength.” Comment. [1985, 20 Marks]
“The failure of Kuomintang against the communist onslaught was unimaginable and it was Mao Tse-tung whose tenacity and innovative approach had accomplished the unthinkable.” Discuss. [2015, 20 Marks]
CIVIL WAR:
The Kuomintang government was established by Sunyat Sen in 1922. He wanted to build a modern, unified and prosperous China and forged cooperative alliance with the Communist party for the purpose. After the death of Sunyat Sen, Chiang Kai Sheik took control of KMT.
While the KMT was fast losing support, the communists gained strength. There were many reasons why people got attracted to the communist.
Weakness of KMT | Strength of CCP |
The KMT administration was inefficient and corrupt, much of its American aid finding its way into the locket of officials. Its policy of paying for the wars by printing extra money resulted in galloping inflation which caused hardship for masses. Its armies were poorly paid and were allowed to loot the countryside. It spent much time looking after the interests of industrialists, bankers, landowners. There was little improvement in factory conditions. Practices as child labour were widely prevalent. Workers were not paid their rightful wages. There was no improvement in the peasant poverty which got compounded on account of series of droughts and bad harvests in the 1930s. It caused widespread famines in rural areas and KMT government failed to come up with a land policy favouring peasants. Further, the KMT did not put effective resistance against the Japanese. When full scale war broke out with the Japanese, the KMT forces were quickly defeated and the Chiang's army lost most of eastern China to the Japanese. | They tried to win popular support by their restrained land policy which varied according to the needs of particular areas. The communists also resorted to propagating their ideas and not only won people to their ideas but also enlisted support of Chiang’s army. Although on paper the KMT army was three times the size of the communist army, the men were demoralized and badly led. Most of them were peasants, so they were naturally attracted to the CCP program of land reform. Even the mainstay of the KMT, the merchants and civil servants, had become alienated from Chiang because of the terrible inflation that followed the end of the war with Japan. Moreover, the communists organized effective guerilla campaigns against the Japanese. They also freed many areas from the control of the warlords. |
Critically analysis the cause and the results of the Chinese revolution of 1949. [2006, 60 Marks]
The victory of the communist revolution of 1945 had several important consequences.
“If the 1917 Bolshevik Revolution in Russia (that resulted in the creation of the union of Soviet Socialist Republics or Soviet Union) inaugurated an international competition for the hearts and minds of people all over the globe, the Chinese revolution raised the stakes of that struggle.” Critically examine. [2013 10 Marks]
Politics | Economics | Constitution | Foreign |
Firstly, China was freed from the political disorganization and foreign control as a strong centralized government under communist party of China was set up by Mao Zedong and Zhon Enlai. The Chinese territories under the control of the warlords were set free and incorporated into Chinese republic. | First land reform was introduced and new technologies made available to farmers to raise production. Later on communist were organized. Initially, Chinese communists took Russian help in taking China on course of modem industrialization and five year plans were adopted to develop China industrially. | Communist Revolution led to the adoption of a new constitution by China in 1954 which gave the ultimate control over the government to the communist party. | It inspired the communists elsewhere and added to the strength of the newly independent nations. On the other hand, the Revolution led the United States of America to tighten the noose on the communist bloc to help prevent the spread of communism. |
Write a note on the Cultural Revolution and origin of Chinese Capitalism in China.
Cultural Revolution one of the important events in World History took place in China between 1966 and 1976. This Mao did to regain his influence in CCP after failed Great Leap Forward.
It was basically a movement initiated by Mao Zedong, the then Chairman of CCP (Chinese Communist Party) to impose his Maoist Ideology throughout China, and purge the Chinese society of all traditional and bourgeois elements.
The basic features of the revolution were:
Mobilisation of youth – in form of Red Guard troops
Taking over of educational institutions by revolutionaries and forcefully imposing Maoist ideology in their curriculum and teaching.
Assumption of complete authority of Mao Zedong who ordered purging of ‘non-compliant’ officials as well as ordinary citizens on a massive scale and on his insistence on removal of ‘revisionists’ through a violent class struggle.
However, the Cultural Revolution gave way to progressive rise of capitalism in China, under the charismatic leaders of CCP like Deng Xiaoping.
The features of origin of Chinese Capitalism were:
A revision, of the manner in which state-run institutions worked in initial stages, in order to save socialism in China
After that, privatization of a number of enterprises were allowed, where heavy investment by government had not yielded effective results
Decentralization of foreign trade and conferring of fiscal autonomy on provinces were next step
Private farming and creation of SEZs received a big boost.
In short both Cultural Revolution and origin of Chinese Capitalism were two landmark events in history of China and were interlinked together.
The end of Cultural Revolution ushered in economic reforms by liberalisation and thereby moving towards Capitalism. This was exactly opposite of what CR had set out for in the first place itself.
In fact excessive form of communism ushered in due to Cultural Revolution can be believed to be exclusively responsible for having generated the first push towards the need for some kind of liberation, from excessive central control and domination.
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