AH - Mauryan Empire, ASHOKA, Sungas, Kanvas

Foundation of the Mauryan Empire, Chandragupta, Kautilya and Arthashastra; Ashoka; Concept of Dharma; Edicts; Polity, Administration;  

Delineate the nature and impact of India’s contact with Western Asia and the Mediterranean world during the Mauryan period. [2015, 15m] 

 

Bring out the elements of change and continuity in the domestic and foreign policies of Ashoka. [1981, 60m] 

Were Maurya emperors insular? No. They looked beyond the limits of the subcontinent. The entertained ambassadors from Hellenistic courts, sent dhamma-mahamatas to distant lands in other king’s domain. 

 

Economy; Art, architecture and sculpture; External contacts; Religion; Spread of religion; Literature. Disintegration of the empire;  

Sungas and Kanvas.  

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Empires vs Kingdoms: Emperors need more resources than Kings because empires are larger than kingdoms and need to be protected by big armies. So they also need a larger number of officials who collect taxes. 

Critically examine the sources for the study of Mauryan dynasty. How are they useful in understanding the Mauryan administration? [1980, 60m] 

Discuss critically the relative importance of the different source for the history of  the Mauryan period. [1986, 60m] 

Discuss the comparative merit of the Arthasastra, the Indica and Ashokan Inscriptions as sources for the administration, socio-economic conditions and religious life in the Mauryan period. [1989, 60m] 

Determine the veracity of Megasthenes’ descriptions of Indian society and economy with the help of other contemporary evidences. [1994, 60m] 

First, there is the Arthasastra, a theoretical treatise, not composed in its entirety in the Mauryan period, which talks of a potential state. It is difficult to assess how much of it was governed in Mauryan period	Third, Ashoka’s inscriptions, have the advantage that they are securely dated to the reign of Ashoka, but as they deal mostly with Ashoka’s dhamma, they offer fleeting, incidental references to administration
Second, there are different versions of fragments of lost text, Megasthenes’ Indica replete with several discrepancies and inaccuracies.  Many things which Megasthenes says does not hold true –   In India all land belongs to king, there are no slaves, Indians do not know writing.   Moreover his work survives only in second-hand paraphrases (double-filter)*.  Aelian cites Megasthenes and asserts that Indians did not borrow or lend money on interest.  Strabo states that Indians were ignorant of writing and fusing metals, did not drink wine.	Megasthenes - BACTRIAN Ambassador to Chandragupta Court (304-309)  A2M - 7 Castes  Philosophers  Warriors  Peasants (Husband Man)  Herdsmen  Councillors and Assessors.  Artisans and Craftsmen.  Supervisor.  Actually profession - different status based on birth. => Varna system should have been there. Not rigid society.  Women Royal Bodyguards => participated in public life.  Ornaments put on, Society was progressive though social evils taking place.

 

All three of them were in one way or other connected with Mauryan Court. They project the view of political-intellectual elites. 

Comparison of Arthasastra and Indica reveals several discrepancies – in taxation, city administration, fortification, etc => two works could not belong to same time. 

 

What are the varied sources of Mauryan Empire and King? 

1. King lists of Puranas mention Maurya – though there are inconsistencies. 

2. Hemachandra’s Parishistaparvan allude to Chandragupta Mauryas connections with JAINISM. 

3. Vishakhadutta’s Mudrarakshasa 5th C –  

   1. Chanakya clever machinations against Rakshasa, Nanda’s Minister. 

   2. Gives picture on the socio-economic condition. 

   3. Title = 'the play in which Rakshasa is caught with the help of a ring. 

   4. Dhundiraja the author of Jataka Bharanam wrote a commentary. 

4. Mahavamsa and its 10th C Commentary Vamsatthapakasini – Chanakya-Chandragupta legends in BUDDHIST legends. 

5. TAMIL poet Mamulnar possible reference to Maurya southward expansion. 

6. Other legendary accounts: Ashokavadana, Divyavadana, Dipavamsa, Taraknatha – Tibetan history of Indian Buddhism. 

 

 

Examine the nature of the Mauryan State. Bring out the features of their administrative system. [2002, 60m] 

The emergence of Mauryan Empire during the latter half of 4th century BC was a phenomenon of great significance because for the first time such a great empire had emerged in Indian subcontinent. Arthasastra is the first Indian text to define a state.  

The references found in 'Arthasastra', Buddhist records, Mudrarakshasa of Visakhadutta and the information provided by Ashoka edicts throw light on the essential elements of Mauryan Polity. These sources help in understanding the nature and character of Mauryan state system. 

The Mauryan polity was monarchical in character.  The King was head of the state and the office of king was hereditary.  The Mauryan rulers used to assume high sounding titles like Devanampiya, Piyadasi and Magadhraj.  The Mauryan monarchy was semi-divine. The king was considered to be a symbol of god on earth.  In general, the law of primogeniture was followed. But at times the issue of succession was decided in battlefield.  The Mauryan state was despotic in nature.  In theory the king was supposed to take into account the advice of his ministers. But in practise, the order of king was final.  In case of conflict between the order of king and the traditions the former was to be followed.  The Mauryan political system was centralised in character.  The king maintained an effective control over whole of the empire with the help of a large body of officials.  The important officials were appointed by the king himself and they were accountable to the king.

The recent research has brought to light that elements of decentralised polity were also present in the Mauryan State system.  Nuclear Region / Metropolitan region - area in and around the capital. It was administered by officials directly commanded by king.  Core Area - zone of economic and strategic significance. It was divided into provinces and sub-provincial units.  Peripheral area - tribal region where state system was yet to be developed. The Mauryan rulers maintained only nominal control over this zone.  The Mauryan empire was extremely extensive. In those days of difficult communication maintaining an effective direct control over entire territory would have been practically impossible.  The institution of bureaucracy was highly developed.   According to Arthasastra, the officials were appointed after thorough examination of their character.   Merit was the basis of appointment.  The provincial and sub-provincial administration was highly developed in Mauryan empire.  Kumaramatya/ Aryaputra was the head of provincial administration.  Village was the smallest unit of administration.  Important role of state in economy was another feature of Mauryan Polity.  Lakshana was the head of mint department. Rupadarshaka was the examiner of Coins.  The Mauryan rulers paid special attention to the economic development as they were of the fact that economy was the key to the strength of the state.

Elements of Universal State were present in the Mauryan Polity.   These features are:  An extensive territory.  Enjoys natural frontiers.  A large population.  Different religious faith and practices.  Speakers of different languages.  A strong imperialistic outlook was also visible in the character of Mauryan Polity.  The Mauryan Rulers followed the policy of territorial expansion.  Chandragupta Maurya extended the frontiers of Mauryan empire to its natural limits.  Ashoka conquered Kalinga.  The ideal of 'Chakravartin King' was followed by Mauryan Rulers.  The Mauryan empire was pan-India in character.  It covered almost the entire Indian subcontinent beginning from Hindukush mountains in the Northwest to Karnataka in the South.  Elements of Police State can also be seen in the character of Mauryan polity.  The early Mauryan rulers concentrated on collection of revenue and the maintenance of order.  The Mauryan political system was secular in character.   The kings did not impose their personal religious ideas and beliefs on people.

 

The Mauryan State system was not the result of any sudden development but in reality it symbolised the culmination of long process of gradual evolution spanning across more than 1000 years. 

Examine the role of adhyaksha in the Mauryan administration. [2012, 30m] 

Write a short essay on: “The Maurya policy of regulating and controlling economic activities.” [1990, 20m] 

BUREAUCRACY: 

2nd book of  Arthasastra i.e. Adyakshaprachara contemplates a ubiquitous bureaucracy which keeps in touch with all sections of the society.  These superintendents were called Adhyakshas.  

Adhyakshas composed a highly skilled secretariat, divided into several departments.

Such an Overarching State control possible?

Sitadhyaksha – In-charge of agriculture in state-owned lands;  Panyadhyaksha – In-charge of trade, including fixing GST;   Sansthadhyaksha – Superintendent of markets;   Pautavadhyaksha –  standardized weights and measures;   Sutradhyaksha –state run textile workshops;   Four divisions of army, each under a superintendent:  Infantry under Patyadhyaksha;         Cavalry under Ashvadhyaksha;  Chariots under Rathadhyaksha;  Elephants under Hastyadhyaksha;  Kupyadhyaksha – In-charge of forests;   Lavanadhyaksha – In-charge of salt department;

One of the remarkable aspects of the Arthsastra is its ability to visualise extensive state participation, regulation and control over every walk of life but it is impossible to think of an ancient state exercising such overarching and complete control over the economy and society.  Though some of the adhyakshas like Sitadhyaksha, Patyadhyaksha, Ashvadhyaksha, etc  may have played important roles in the functioning of the Mauryan administration but the adhyaksha like Sutradhyaksha who is In-charge of state run textile workshops where the state is an entrepreneur may represent a feature of a would be state imagined by the Arthashastra.

 

REVENUE SYSTEM (Kosha): Saptanga Theory talks about it. The mains source of income was LR known as 'bhaga' which was approx. 1/6 of total production. Villagers were required to pay 'SENABHAKTA' - provisions to royal army passing through the area. Other taxes mentioned in Arthasastra 'Hiranya', 'Pranaya', Bali. 

JUDICIAL System - various courts were established. At the village level there were Gram Nyayalaya. At top were two kinds of courts - 'Dharmasthiya' which dealt with civil cases and 'KANTAKSHODHAN' which dealt with criminal matters. Harsh punishments were given for offence. 

ARMY: Both Megasthenes and Kautilya has written about it. A2M there were 6 committees having 5 members each. However Kautilya does not discuss about these committees but he did write that soldiers are paid well. 

POLICE and SPY System: 'Dandapal' was head of police department. Two kinds of spies were there - SANSTHA - who were placed in one position and SANCHARA who roamed and kept the King informed. 

Saptanga rajya: is a concept that considers the state as consisting of seven inter-related elements or limbs (angas or prakritis). 

Svami (lord)

Amatya (ministers)

Janapada (territory and people)

Durga (fortified capital)

Kosha (treasury)

Danda (justice or force)

Mitra (ally)

From above we also get salient ideas about governance of Ashoka. King was the central figure and his protection was of priority. In the happiness of people lay the happiness of king, like a father (reflection of paternalistic rule).  

Coins were issued in Maurya period: Punch-marked coin mostly of silver continued to be issued and used in Mauryan period. As per Arthasastra ‘mashakas’ - copper coins and ‘panas’ - silver coins of different denominations were used. 

PROVINCIAL ADMINISTRATION: 

Mauryan empire divided into various provinces. Eg: Uttarapatha (c. Taxila), Dakshinapatha (c. Suvarnagiri) etc. The head of these provinces were known as RASHTRAPAL. Further divided into 'STHANIYA' whose heads were STHANIK. Further divided into villages or gram. 

 

Write a short essay on:  “Mauryan municipal administration.” [1996, 20m] 

Megasthenes	Ashoka inscriptions	The Arthasastra
has given a vivid description of the administration of Pataliputra (has praised efficient Mauryan Administration) where he mentions six committees of five members each, in charge of the following aspects:-   (a) Industrial  arts;   (b) the entertainment and surveillance of foreigners;  (c) maintaining records of birth and death;  (d) trade and commerce (inspecting weights and measures, etc);  (e) supervising the public sales of goods;  (f) the collection of taxes on merchandise sold in the market.	mentions  the nagalaviyohalaka- mahamatas who were associated with municipal administration.	(a) It gives information about  an officer called the nagaraka who had sthanikas and gopas under him.   (b) It mentions high officials like Samaharta (Chief collector of revenue and who maintained the accounts) and Sannidhata (treasurer and also in charge of royal stores).   (c) It also mentions about officers like dauvarika (chief of palace attendants), the antaravamshika (chief of palace guards), and adhyakshas (departmental heads).

MvK: Megasthenes mention of one of the six committees as of Navy is interesting as Kautilya does not mention one.  

 

The Maurya and Forest People: 

Arthasastra -	Asoka's inscriptions -
‘mlechchha-jati’ (pejorative sense) to refer forest peoples in general.  ‘Atavika’ – refers wild, savage tribes; ‘Bahrikas’ (outsiders) dangerous wandering tribes.  Recommends bribes as a means to winning over forest chiefs by spy  Recognizes importance of Forest produce (timber, elephant..) = State Monopoly.	Reference of encounter between state and forest dwellers. *RE13  PE5 – prohibits burning of forests.

 

Phase of pottery corresponds to the Maurya period: Middle and late NBPW. 

 

Examine sources of information for Mauryan dynasty. Throw light on historical significance of Ashoka’s inscriptions. [1999, 60m] 

Write a short essay on:  “Inscriptions of Ashoka” [1995, 20m] 

The Mauryan ruler especially Asoka issued large number of inscriptions. These inscriptions throw light on many aspects of Mauryan times. These are: 

• Knowledge of Language, that is, Prakrit which is commonly used in Asokan inscriptions. Knowledge of Script, that is, Brahmi as well as Greek, Aramaic and Kharoshthi. 

• These tell us about the political system of Asoka - His welfare measures and the steps taken by him to maintain good relations with outsiders. 

• The military achievements of Asoka are also mentioned in inscriptions. 13th Major Rock Edict informs about the Kalinga War. 

• They tell us about Asoka's Dhamma policy. 

• The calligraphic skills of the time is very high as not a single mistake is found in any of the Asokan inscriptions. 

• The Material culture of the age can also be understood on the basis of inscription because of the use of stone in inscribing the edicts. Stone was the main material used in making the structures. The stone cutting industry was highly developed. 

• Transportation of Asoka pillars across 1000s of miles from Mathura and Chunar (centres of stone cutting industry) indicates that means of communication were highly developed. 

• The most important information / help they provide is in ascertaining the political boundaries of Mauryan empire. 

Rock and pillar edicts: Set of inscriptions that occur, with minor variations, in different places. 

Where are the location of edicts? Fa-hien and Xuan zang mention seeing pillars at places where today they are none. 

1. The extant MAJOR ROCK EDICTS are mostly located on borders of the empire. 

2. The MAJOR PILLAR EDICTS are located in north India (possible exception – Amaravati fragment). 

3. The MINOR ROCK EDICTS have the widest distribution – noticeable clustering in Andhra-Karnataka area. 

4. The inscriptions were located at ancient trade and pilgrimage routes. Some as Sanchi were located at important Buddhist monastic sites. 

Arrange edicts on basis of their age:  Minor Rock (earliest) > Major Rock > Pillar Edicts. 

 

 

Kalsi / Dehradun, Uttarakhand  Known as Sudhnagar in 7th Century, described by Hieun Tsang.  Edicts of Asoka   Shri Ram Rai, eldest son of Seventh Sikh guru Har Rai, set up his camp (dera) in valley (dun) in 1676.	Shahbazgarhi, Mardan district, NWFP  Major RE of Ashoka.  Kharoshti Script written from right to left (influence by Achaemenids).  Inscription presents aspects of Ashoka's Dharma.  Mansehra, Khyber-Pakhuntwa district, Pak  Asoka, Afghans, Turks, British.  During Maurya times, it was part of Taxila.  Asoka scripts in Kharoshti.	Erragudi / Yerragudi -   Major and Minor Rock Edict of Ashoka near Kurnool district, A.P.  Sohgaura, Gorakhpur UP  Earliest known Copper Plate, a Maurya record that mentions famine relief efforts.  One of the very few pre-Ashoka Brahmi inscriptions of India.
Dhauli, near Bhubaneshwar, Orissa  Identified with Tosali, mentioned by ancient geographer Ptolemy as a metropolis.  Major edicts of Ashoka engraved on a mass of rock (# I to X and XIV).  Two separate Kalinga edicts.  In Edict VI, Ashoka expresses concern for the welfare of whole world.  Rock cut elephant above the Edicts is the earliest Buddhist sculpture of Odisha.	Yamunanagar -   Topra Village where the iconic Ashoka Pillar was originially erected.  Dismantled and taken to FS Kotla by Sultan Feroz.   This pillar uprooted from Topra was only pillar in India which had seven edicts issued by Ashoka, whereas the rest of the pillars had only six edicts.  FST also moved second pillar from Meerut to Delhi.	Sannathi / Sannat, Karnataka  Four Ashokan edicts were written in the Prakrit language and Brahmi script and one of them was used as foundation for the pedestal of Kali idol.  Numerous limestone panels of sculptures of ruined Maha stupa.  Clay pendants of Roman origin, black polished pottery, Satavahana coins.  One of the stones - the only known example of its type - is of Emperor Ashoka (274-232 BC) seated on his throne. IT is PROBABLY the ONLY SURVIVING IMAGE of ASHOKA.
Sopara, Palaghar district, Maharashtra.  Ancient Port town and capital of ancient Aparanta.  Relics in a stupa and RE of Ashoka.  From centre of Stupa, a large stone coffer was excavated which contained 8 bronze images of Maitreya Buddha.  A silver coin of Gautamiputra Satakarni was also found.  Ptolemy mentioned it as major commercial centre during his time.	Siddapura  Minor RE, lies one mile west of Brahmagiri.  3 miles S of Jatinga-Rameshwar inscription.  May have marked the S boundary of empire.	Ganjam, Odissa.   “Ganj-i-am” which means the Granary of the World.  Part of ancient Kalinga which was occupied by Ashoka in 261 B.C. The Rock Edicts of Ashoka inscribed on a hill are found at Jaugada which is in Ganjam district.  An inscription here mentions that Shasanka of Gauda could not be overpowered by Harsha. It had been under both Samudragupta and Harsha.  In 1757, French Commander Bussy captured Ganjam but English ultimately defeated the French in the Deccan and annexed Ganjam in 1759.  Chilka Lake - bird’s sanctuary.
Maski, Raichur district, Karnataka  Minor RE of Ashoka.  First edict of Ashoka that contained name Ashoka in it.  Excavations show region was occupied by Neolithic-Chalcolithic, Megalithic.	Lauriya Nandangarh, West Champaran, Bihar  Contains ruin of huge stupa.  Famous for Ashokan Pillar which is a single block of polished sandstone.  The top is bell shaped with circular abacus supporting the statue of lion.

 

 

 

Examine the importance of Ashoka’s Rock Edit XIII for determining the extent of the Maurya Empire. Determine the extent of the Mauryan empire. [2005, 60m] 

Asoka's Major Rock Edict XIII -  The geographical location of 13th MRE of Asoka as well as the contents of this edict helps in ascertaining the boundaries of Mauryan Empire.  The 13th MRE was found at Mansehra (Hazara district of Pakistan) and Shahbazgarhi (Peshwar district of Pakistan).  These locations confirm that present day Pakistan was part of Mauryan Empire.  This MRE was also found at Kalsi (in the foothills of Himalayas near Dehradun).  This indicates that Mauryan empire was extended up to Himalayas in northern direction.  In western direction Mauryan empire extended up to Gujarat coast as indicated by the 13th MRE found at Junagarh (Saurastra).   13th MRE has also been found at Sopara (Thane district, Maharastra) indicating that Maharastra was within Mauryan Empire.  In South, Mauryan empire extended up to Andhra Pradesh indicated by the discovery of 13th Major Rock Edict at Yerragudi (Kurnool district, Andhra Pradesh).  This Edict informs that Kalinga was conquered by Asoka in his 9th regnal year. This confirms that Mauryan empire extended up to Odisha in East direction.  This edict informs that Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas and Satyaputras were living in border areas of Mauryan Empire.  A number of tribes like Gandhara and Kamboja are also mentioned in the 13th MRE. These tribes live in present Afghanistan region.  Major Rock Edicts of Ashoka  Are/were found at Jaugada (Ganjam district) and Dhauli (Puri district).

Rock Edicts of Asoka (MINOR)  These are found from a number of places in Karnataka such as Brahmagiri, Maski, Udegolan and Siddhapur indicating the extension of Mauryan empire to Karnataka.  A minor rock edict has also been found at Sharkuna (Kandahar) in Afghanistan.  Asokan Edicts  Pillar edicts of Asoka have been found at Lumbini and Megalisagar in Nepal (Terai region).    Other inscriptions  A copper plate inscription of the reign of Chandragupta Maurya has been found at Mahasthangarh (Bogra district of Bangladesh = provincial capital).  A 14th century inscription found at Mysore informs that Mysore was part of the Mauryan empire.  The famous Junagarh Rock inscription of Rudradaman informs that Sudarshana lake was built by the provincial governor of Chandragupta Maurya and it was repaired by the provincial governor of Asoka. This indicates that Junagadh was within Mauryan empire.

Archaeological and Literary Sources  According to Parishista Parvacha of Hemachandra, Chandragupta Maurya moved to Chandragiri hill (Mysore) along with Bhadrabahu after abdicating throne in favour of his son Bindusara. This informs that Mysore was part of Mauryan Empire.  According to Hieun Tsang, Asokan stupas were seen by him at Tamralipti, Karnasuvarna which are places in Bengal. Thus the empire extended up to Bengal. He also saw one at Kapisa in Afghanistan.  According to Indica of Megasthenes, a number of territories such as Aira (Herat in Afghanistan), Kabul, Kandahar, Hindukush mountains and Makran coast were handed over by Seleucus Nikator to Chandragupta Maurya after a battle was fought between them.  According to Tamil poet, Mamulnar, the early Mauryan rulers reached up to Madurai with their army and the dust released by the feet of Mauryan cavalry had covered the sky of Madurai. This information also confirms that Mauryan Empire was covering a major part of South India.  According to Kalhana's Rajtarangini, the city of Srinagar was built by Asoka. He also constructed the temples of Asokeswara and Vijeswar in the city. After Asoka, Jaloka ruled over Kashmir. Kashmir valley was therefore, part of the Mauryan Empire.  So, is the extent of Mauryan Empire from Afghanistan to Bangladesh and Himalayas to Tamil Nadu.

 

What makes Ashoka’s edicts unique in the history? Unique thing is that unlike royal inscriptions of later times, which follow a conventional pattern and phraseology, Asoka's inscriptions reveal the voice and ideas of king. 

In which edict and at which four places was personal name of Ashoka found? What were the other names of his reference? 

Minor Rock Edict (mRE) – at Maski, Udegolam, Nittur and Gujjara – two titles – Devanampiya (beloved of gods) and Piyadasi (he who looks on auspiciousness). 

 

 

How did Ashoka contribute to the moral and administrative welfare of his people? [2000, 60m] 

Moral and Administrative Welfare of People / DHAMMA :

What are the themes of Asoka’s Dhamma? 

Ahimsa – ban on animal sacrifices, reduction in royal kitchen killings.  ROCK EDICT I

Good Conduct and Social Responsibilities – criticisms of ceremonies performed especially by women on birth, illness, marriage. Respectful behaviour towards elders, proper courtesy to slaves and servants. Truthfulness, compassion etc. ROCK EDICT II

Generation of mutual respect and concord among people from different sects = religious toleration. RE 12.

Welfare of People (human and animals).

Renunciation of warfare and re-define righteous conquest = ‘dhamma vijaya’ (winning over people) different from dharma vijaya (right or wrong) of Arthasastra.

Pillar Edict II describes Dhamma as performing many virtues like compassion etc. “Dhamma” corresponds to the Sanskrit word “Dharma” which literally means “which is to be held fast to” or “adhering strictly”. [Historians differ in their interpretations] 

Generosity of Ashoka towards Buddhism reflected in various legends: Ashoka is – Credited with redistributing the relics of Buddha; Enshrining them in stupas in every important town. Supposed to have built 84000 stupas and viharas. 

Buddhism be seen in Ashoka’s Dhamma

Asoka’s inscriptions do not contain key elements of Buddha’s teachings like Dukha, Astanga marga, Nibban

A definite Buddhist core – Ahimsa for example.  A striking similarity between the duty oriented ethics of inscriptions and Buddhist upasaka dharma reflected in Sigalavada Sutta.  Buddhist element can be seen in sculptural motifs associated with the pillars.  Elephant at Girnar, Dhauli and Kalsi = Buddhist symbol – would-be-Buddha entering his mother’s womb as white elephant.  Certain possibility also comes from Buddhist elements found in vicinity of many Ashokan Pillars.

Though clearly inspired by Upasaka Dhamma of Buddhism it was not identical to it.  Emphasis on mutual respect and concord between people of different beliefs was a feature not emphasised in any religious tradition of the time.  Inscriptions in BARABAR HILLS indicate Ashoka extended his patronage to ascetics of Ajivika sect.

Role of a King [RE 1 and 2] - Paternalistic idea: care for even animals and those beyond frontiers. 

Problems that Ashoka wanted to solve by introducing dhamma	Means adopted by Ashoka to spread the message of dhamma
People followed different religions è Conflict. [Reduce Conflict]  Animals were sacrificed.  Slaves and servants were ill-treated.  Quarrels in families and amongst neighbours.	He appointed dhamma mahamatta who went from place to place to teach people.  He got messages inscribed on rocks and pillars.  He sent messengers to spread ideas to other lands – Syria, Egypt, Greece, SL.  He built roads, dug wells, rest houses, medical treatment for humans and animals.

 

Tradition of building tanks in India: 

The Arthasastra of Kautilya gives an extensive account of dams and bunds that were built for irrigation during the period of the Mauryan Empire. The water supply systems were well managed within the framework of strict rules and regulations. Different types of taxes were collected from the cultivators depending upon the nature of irrigation. 

At Sringaverapura near Allahabad in Uttar Pradesh, India, there exists an extraordinary example of hydraulic engineering dating back to the end of the 1st century BC. It comprises three percolation-cum-storage tanks, fed by a deep canal that used to skim the floodwaters off the Ganga. 

In the 14th Century, the tank in Hauz Khas, Delhi was constructed by Khilji for supplying water to Siri Fort area. Iltutmish built the Hauz-i-Shamsi water tank. Also, in the 11th Century, Bhopal Lake, one of the largest artificial lakes of its time was built. 

 

 

 

Analyze Ashoka’s policy of Dhamma and account for its failure. [1983, 60m] 

Discuss  different  interpretations  of  historians  about  the  nature  of  Asoka’s  ‘Dhamma’. Did his principle of ‘Dhamma-vijaya’ render the Mauryan Empire militaristically weak? [2014, 20m] 

Discuss the nature of Ashoka’s Dhamma. Was it responsible for the downfall of his empire? [1979, 60m] 

Write a short essay on: “Contents of Asoka’s dhamma and reasons for Asoka’s keenness to propagate dhamma.” [1991, 20m] 

Equating it with Buddhism (RH – R.C.Majumdar, Harprasad Shastri and others.)	The Moral and ethical principles common to all religions (H. C. Raychaudhuri and others)	An ethical code of conduct (Nilakantha Shastri and others)	An invention of Ashoka to consolidate the empire (Romila Thapar)
It is argued that after the Kalinga war, Ashoka became so disgusted with the massacre of people in the war that he gave up war and converted to Buddhism. Now the Buddhism was made state religion and Asoka through his rock edicts and pillar inscriptions propagated Buddhism among the masses.   However according to recent writings of scholars like Romila Thapar, B.N.Mukherji, Upinder Singh, Ranabir Chakravarti: dhamma was not a religious concept and influence of Buddhism should be conceived in the light of Buddhism not just being a religion but a social movement which influenced all facet of life.	Dhamma was a short of universal religion, containing certain common elements in many religious traditions. It is interpreted as a form of raja-dharma (dharma of a king), consisting moral and ethical principles borrowed from both Buddhism and Brahmanism.  Dhamma was humanistic concept which focussed on human values and ideals and antithesis to violence.	Dhamma was an ethical code of conduct formed by Ashoka for his subjects, who were expected to follow it. It was guiding principles of social behaviour.  Ashoka taught the virtue of toleration and non-violence through dhamma at an age when religious tension was high and violence though war was prevalent.  Dhamma was a social concept which had definite social objective of societal integration.	Dhamma was an invention of Ashoka based on the moral ethical principles based on both Buddhism and Brahmanism.  Romila Thapar underlines the political rationale behind the propagation of Dhamma. She minimizes the Buddhist elements in Ashoka’s Dhamma. She presents the view that the Dhamma was an ideological tool used by Ashoka to weld and consolidate his far-flung empire.   It aimed at political integration through social harmony and integration among different sects.

 
Conclusion –   

It can said that dhamma was a secular concept, non-sectarian concept, humanistic concept, social concept and political concept. It was guiding principles of social behaviour and a way of life. 

*RH = Representative Historians. 

 

Do you think that the economic factors were alone responsible for the disintegration of the Mauryan Empire? [1982, 20m] 

Examine the administrative system of the Mauryas and discuss briefly the causes of disintegration of the Mauryan Empire. [1984, 60m] 

Did Ashoka’s policies and reforms contribute to the fall of the empire? [1993, 60m] 

After flourishing for more than 100 years, the great Mauryan empire collapsed with the assassination of last King Brihadratha by his commander-in-chief Pusyamitra Sunga. 

The contemporary sources informed that the king was murdered in broad daylight in front of the army. While it is known with certainty that King Brihadratha was assassinated by Pusyamitra Sunga but the motivation behind this are not known precisely. Because of this different sections of historians have explained the decline of Mauryan empire differently. 

 

Theory of Brahmanical Reaction - HC Shatri	Asoka's Pacifism/Dhamma - HC Raychaudhuri	Decline due to Economic Reasons / Weakness - DD Koshambi	Centralised Administration - Romila Thapar
The anti-Brahmana policies of Asoka, patronage to heterodox sects =>serious discontent among the Brahman (Pusyamitra Sunga).  According to HC Shastri, Asoka prohibited the rituals and ceremonies during which Brahmanas used to receive huge gifts (1st MRE).  Asoka had embraced Buddhism, as a result of which, the Brahmanas, had lost Royal Patronage.  Rupnath minor rock edict was interpreted by HC Sastri to conclude that Asoka had shattered the pride of Brahmanas.	According to this theory the pacifist outlook of Asoka had adversely affected the fighting capacity of Mauryan army.  It emphasised that -  Mauryan empire didn't fight any war for more than 25 years, because after the battle of Kalinga, Asoka had abandoned the policy of military conquest [Major RE 13th].  Asoka had embraced Buddhism and had adopted a non-violent policy. It also emphasised that army remained neglected for long time and lost its effectiveness.	Basis examination of coins issued by later Mauryan Rulers which have high percentage of impurity.  Patanjali informs that later Mauryan rulers encouraged the selling of idols of Gods and Goddesses to fill their treasury. Such emotional blackmailing => economic challenge serious.  Outcome of the fact that later Mauryan rulers failed to create new sources of income for the state but their expenditure had continued to increase.	She emphasised that Mauryan administration was top heavy in character.  The Bureaucracy was very powerful and officials misused their authority and this was a reason behind the revolt that took place during the reign of Bindusara.  After the death of Asoka such misuse would have increased. There was no national consciousness among the people and unity was maintained through force. Such unity cannot last long.
CRITICAL EXAMINATION
Asoka was not anti-Brahmana in any way because he had instructed Dhamma mahamatras to take care of Brahmana as well and to people to respect shramanas.  The prohibition of violent rituals and ceremonies as mentioned in 1st MRE was not anti-Brahmanas in the way because a similar attitude can be seen in Upanishads.  Appointment of Brahmanas as commander-in-chief in itself confirms that Mauryan rulers were not anti-Brahmanas in any way.  The Mauryan army comprised of soldiers from all the 4 Varna and not a single soldier raised the banner of revolt when the king was murdered. It reveals that the motivating factor behind the action of Pushyamitra Sunga was something different. It was not a case of Brahmanical discontent.  Historians emphasised that Rupanath Minor R.E. has been wrongly interpreted by HC Sastri because it merely mentioned that Brahmanas had lost their popularity due to propagation of Dhamma.	Asoka was pragmatic ruler. He was not impractically non-violent. His non-violent outlook was reflection of his strength not of his weakness.  There's no reference anywhere to conclude that Asoka disbanded his army.  In his 13th MRE, Asoka warns the frontier tribes to mend their ways or otherwise face action. This reference suggest that his military strength was intact.  Two peacocks and one deer continued to be killed in his royal kitchen even after Asoka had embraced Buddhism.  Since in his long reign, he undertook only one military campaign, it may have adversely affected the preparedness of the army but it would be incorrect to say that  Asoka's dhamma was responsible for the downfall of Mauryan Empire.  Capital punishment was also not abolished by him even after embracing Buddhism and adopting policy of Dhamma. Because of these reasons, the pacifist outlook of Asoka cannot be accepted as reason behind the disintegration of Mauryan Empire.	Asoka has been blamed for this state but this view is difficult to be accepted because Asoka ruled for 37 years successfully.   His expenditure on the promotion of Buddhism and Dhamma as well as activities like construction of Stupas could have never been at the cost of the financial health.  Had Mauryan treasury been exhausted the empire would have never survived almost 50 years after the death of Asoka.	There is no evidence for widespread financial crisis.  Some like absence of nationalism, idea of loyalty to state, etc are anachronistic - they point to things we should not generally expect to find in ancient states.

 

Foreign Invasion

By 206 BC a portion of Chinese wall was complete. The Qin-shi-Huang dynasty constructed the Chinese wall to keep the invader like Greeks out of China. As a result of this, the Central Asian invaders turned their face towards India and started breaching Indian frontiers.  The later Mauryan rulers did not pay proper attention to the upkeep of their forces and it faced continuous reversals at the hands of foreign invaders.  The request of commander-in-chief fell on the deaf ears of King Brihadratha. (High level of discontent =>Not a single soldier, therefore, raised the banner of revolt when the king was assassinated in broad daylight)

 

Emergence of Powerful states in Peripheral Region

Due to integration with Mauryan empire the peripheral areas witnessed rapid politico-administrative and economic advancements. At a time, when central authority was becoming weak, the peripheral areas were getting strength.   The entities located in peripheral areas declared their independence when Mauryan Central Authority was no longer strong and effective.  The emergence of this independent kingdoms in peripheral zone commenced process of disintegration of Mauryan empire.  Murder of King Brihadaratha was just the last nail in the coffin - not significant because contemporary sources do not give it much prominence.

 

Limitations of character of Mauryan Polity

A universal state that covered whole of Indian subcontinent. Such a vast empire could not be held together easily. Kings of exceptional quality/ability were required to manage the affairs and when weak rulers set on throne the empire collapsed.

 

All empires rely on mechanisms of integration and control over territory, resources and people. These mechanisms include military force, administrative infrastructure and ideology. In the case of Maurya, given the vast contours of the empire, all three must have been strained to their utmost. It was just a matter of time before the distant provinces broke away from the centre. 

 

What was the impact and legacy of Maurya rule on the so-called 'peripheral areas', and to what extent was interaction with the Mauryan state an impetus to 'secondary state formation' in these areas? 

Secondary State formation is the emergence of states which have the model of already existing states before them, and which emerge as a result of interaction with already existent ('pristine') states. While the Maurya impact cannot be discounted, neither should it be given undue emphasis. 

How does Historian Romila Thapar divide the Mauryan Empire? 

1. Metropolitan Area – Magadha;  

2. Core Area – existing states, centres of trade; 

3. Peripheral Areas – pre-state societies. 

The relationship between the three varied but the nature of relationship did not – it basically involved exploitation. 

 

  

Write a brief essay on: “Similarities and differences between the Maurya columns and Achaemenian pillars.” [1993, 20m] 

Write a short essay on: “Mauryan court art as an alien grafting” [1988, 20m] 

Similarities between the Maurya columns and Achaemenian pillars 

1. Both were built of stones. 
2. Both used polished stones. 
3. Both have certain common sculpture motifs such as the lotus. 
4. Ashokan pillar edicts are somewhat similar to pillar edicts of Darius (king of the Persian Achaemenid Empire). 
5. Carved animals can be found in both the cases. 
6. It has been suggested that Ashoka got the idea of inscribing proclamations on pillars from the achaemenids. 

Differences between the Maurya columns and Achaemenian pillars 

[Functions, conceptions, style, design and form] 

1. The stone columns of the Mauryan Pillared Hall were without capitals whereas the columns of the pillared halls of Perspolis have elaborate capitals. 
2. Achaemenian (Persian) columns stand on bases, either shaped like a bell (that is, inverted lotus), or on a plain rectangular or circular block. While the independent Mauryan columns have no base at all. 
3. The bell form that is used as supporting base in Persian columns serves as capital on top of the shaft in Mauryan ones and makes altogether a different aesthetic effect. 
4. The shape and ornamentation of the Maurya lotus is different from the Persian ones, the bulge typical of the former is absent in the latter. 
5. The Achaemenian shaft is fluted in all cases except one. But Mauryan columns are smooth. 
6. The Achaemenian shaft are built of separate segments of stone aggregated one above the other which is the work of mason. The shaft of the Mauryan pillar is monolithic which pertains to the character of the work of a skilled wood-carver or carpenter. 

Hence in technique, the Mauryan pillars partakes the character of wood-carver’s or carpenter’s work, the Achaemenian, that of a mason. 

• The Achaemenid pillars were generally part of some larger architectural scheme, composed of much too many component parts looking complex and complicated. While the Ashokan columns were intended to produce the effect of an independent freestanding monument with simpler specimen, more harmonious in conception and execution and gives the feeling of greater stability, dignity and strength. 
• The capitals of the Persian columns are crowned with a cluster of stylized palm leaves and have two semi-bulls, lions, or unicorns seated back to back, or an upright or inverted cup, with double volute on the top. 
• The Mauryan type of abacus (platform above the bell) and the placing of independently carved animal motifs on the top of abacus is absent in the Achaemenian context. 
• While Darius pillars propagated military victories and military might of the Achaemenid monarch, Ashoka’s pillar edict shows his quasi-benevolent message of a caring emperor. 

 

 

 

Review  critically  the  evolution  of  different  schools  of  art  in  the  Indian  subcontinent between the second century BCE and the third century CE,  and  evaluate  the  socio-religious factors responsible for it.  [2014, 20m] 

Compare and contrast features of the Maurya and Sunga art.  

Maurya Art	Sunga Art
Bold and massive style marked by a certain realism freely employing foreign elements from Achaemenid Persia.	Native style, distinguished by its simplicity and folk appeal.
Of monolithic pillars of sandstone, 30 to 40 feet high, crowned by animal figures like the bull, lion and elephant.	Of monolithic free standing sculptures of Yakshas and Yakshis, from Gwalior and Mathura.
them inscribed with the Buddhist concepts of morality, humanity and piety,	Beautifully carved gate and railings of the Buddhist stupa at Bharhut.
Examples: Lauriya Nandangarh in Bihar, Sanchi and highly polished monolithic lion-capital found at Sarnath.	Examples: narrative art of Bharhut, depicting Jatakas of Buddha's previous birth in sculptures, the decorative art of Sanchi and the Jain Stupa of Mathura belong to the same tradition.
Superb modelling of the figures executed in a realistic manner reveals the aristocratic and international nature of Mauryan art (great power and dignity).	Style of the sculptures seems related to carving in wood or ivory; frontality as distinct from 'perspective' presentation.
Excellent craftsmanship in fashioning the human figure are provided by the colossal statues of Yakshas and Yakshis, the deities of fertility and abundance.	Figure of Chulakoka Devta is a notable specimen of Sunga art representing its indigenous character and folk quality. She stands gracefully on an elephant with her arms and one leg entwined around a flowering tree, as she is a tree goddess (feminist model).
At Dhauli, in Orissa, there is a masterly representation of an elephant depicted as if emerging from a rock.	Jovial figures, the dwarfish Yaksha from the Pithalkhora caves in Central India, carrying a bowl of abundance on his head.

  

Generally speaking Indian art is an anonymous art, as the sculptor or the artist never sought to glorify himself. He always gave of his best as a humble offering to God or to his patron, the king, who was an image of God. 

Though it may seem strange, Buddha is never represented in human form in Buddhist art before the Christian era, as his spirituality was considered too abstract for the purpose. The adherents of the Buddhist faith followed the Hinayana path as a means of attaining salvation.  

Buddha's presence in early Indian art is, therefore, suggested by symbols like the Bodhi tree under which he attained enlightenment, the wheel of law, his foot prints, the royal umbrella, the stupa and an empty throne, etc.