Syllabus:
(i) Major ideas of Enlightenment: Kant, Rousseau, Bacon, Luther jr, Voltaire; (ii) Spread of Enlightenment in the colonies (iii) Rise of socialist ideas (up to Marx); Spread of Marxian Socialism
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Socrates hasn’t written a single book on his philosophical thoughts but his wisdom of critical thinking has influenced many philosopher to give rise to renaissance in the early 17th century helping us to get a better understanding of ethics.
“The Renaissance and the Reformation are the two springs of modern history, rival sources of the intellectual and moral freshening of modern life.” Comment. [1995, 20 Marks]
Assess the intellectual quickening which occurred in Europe in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. How did it influence modern society and civilization? [1993, 60 Marks]
As art was the keynote of the Renaissance, and religion the soul of the Reformation, so science and philosophy became the gods of the Enlightenment. From this standpoint the Renaissance was in the direct line of European mental development. The Reformation was a deviation from that line, a rejection of reason, a reaffirmation of medieval faith.
The Reformation rendered two services to the Enlightenment: it broke the authority of dogma, generated a hundred sects that would formerly have died at the stake, and allowed among them such virile debate that reason was finally recognized as the bar before which all sects had to plead their cause unless they were armed with irresistible physical force. In that pleading, that attack and defence, all sects were weakened, all dogmas; and a century after Luther’s exaltation of faith Francis Bacon proclaimed that knowledge is power. In that same seventeenth century thinkers like Descartes, Hobbes, Spinoza, and Locke offered philosophy as a substitute or basis for religion.
Looking back, we can understand the anger of Luther at Roman corruption and dominance, the reluctance of German princes to see German collections fatten Italy, the resolve of Calvin and Knox to build model moral communities, the desire of Henry VIII for an heir, and for authority in his own realm.
Nothing of all these efforts was lost. The individual succumbs, but he does not die if he has left something to mankind. Protestantism, in time, helped to regenerate the moral life of Europe, and the Church purified herself into an organization politically weaker but morally stronger than before.
The greatest gift of the Reformation was to provide Europe and America with that competition of faiths which puts each on its mettle, cautions it to tolerance, and gives to our frail minds the zest and test of freedom.
“The Renaissance was not a political or religious movement. It was a state of mind”. Comment. [1994, 20 Marks].
The term renaissance means rebirth. It began as a movement to revisit the old scriptures but soon it turned into new ideas in politics, religion, literature, philosophy, art and science. While a movement is aimed at bringing change to an order, the roots of renaissance is in ideas. e.g.–
Humanism was at the core of renaissance. It meant focusing on humanity rather than divinity. Hence it caused a shift in focus toward the study of man and nature.
While the church talked about peace in life after death, renaissance thinkers talked about happiness on the earth.
Scientific revolution was also a product of transformation. Discoveries such as Copernicus Heliocentric theory, Kepler and Newton's work on heavenly bodies came during this time. Hence, the views of church regarding physical events were discarded except those which could be verified and explained by scientific observation.
These changes, resulted in decline in the influence of church. Clearly the changes renaissance brought was because of the change in perception toward the order and not due to renaissance itself, hence it is appropriate to call renaissance as a state of mind.
What is meant by the ‘rediscovery of ancient civilization’? Show how the ‘New Learning’ was a major element in the beginning of Modern Europe. [1986, 60 Marks]
Renaissance -14C – 17C | Reformation – 15C | Enlightenment – 17C |
Italy | Started in Germany | France |
Intellectual Revolution | Religious revolution | Cultural Movement - Age of Reason |
Rebirth of classic civilization – Bridge between medieval and modern Europe | Correct the faults of Catholic Church | Reaction to Catholic Counter revolution |
Discovery of Man and World – artistic, scientific breakthrough | Led to Protestant churches (Lutheran, Baptist) | AR, FR |
Lorenzo-de-Medici (ruler of Florence, patron), da Vinci, Michelangelo. | Luther, Calvin, Henry VIII | Voltaire and Franklin |
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End of Renaissance:
The Reformation repudiated the Renaissance and its emphasis on earthly affairs and joys. Renaissance contained the seeds of its own end. Educated class began to question catholic teachings. Birth of Luther, Calvin and Protestant Reformation which set off violent conflict throughout Europe.
Printing, Discovery of New World, New trade routes (fall of Constantinople, Gama’s discovery of C of Good Hope) => trade route shifted from Italy to Europe West Coast -> Italy’s income declined.
Give reasons for the origin of the Renaissance in Italy. [2007, 60 Marks]
PRIME Location: One major reason the Renaissance began in Italy is linked to geography. The city-states of Italy, positioned on the Mediterranean Sea, were centres for trade and commerce, the first port of call for both goods and new ideas.
REFUGE OF SCHOLARS: Italy was the core of the former Roman empire, and, at the collapse of the Byzantine empire in 1453, became the refuge for the intellectuals of Constantinople who brought with them many of the great works of the ancient Greeks and Romans, works that had been lost to the West during the Dark Ages.
POWER OF MONEY: Independent city states such as Florence, Venice, and Rome grew wealthy through trade and banking creating a class of affluent businessmen. These men became patrons to individual artists providing them facilities and funds to promote their talent.
VACUUM OF LEADERSHIP: Roman Empire lost its power in north due to political intrigues and south was already dominated by various merchant families who in vacuum of leadership gained considerate power within each city-state and thus revised the laws governing banking, commerce, shipping, and trade. This freer atmosphere led to a bustling exchange of both goods and ideas.
EDUCATION: The growth of business in Italy necessitated a new trend in education which laid emphasis on vocational and geographical knowledge. Education was spontaneous and based on science and logic.
Crusade also helped Europeans to come into the contact with enlightened people of East, mainly Arabs which also possessed the knowledge of Indian as well as Chinese philosophy. The other benefit that they reaped out from the crusade was the knowledge of paper which helped in preserving the treatise for longer time and can be printed for lesser cost and can be made widely available.
Italians saw themselves as descendants of the Roman Empire and its achievements. As much, it was natural they should renew Roman culture with a return to philosophy, literature, and art.
“The Renaissance was the discovery of the world and of man.” Comment. [1990, 20 Marks] [2002, 20 Marks]
“The era of discovery and exploration was but another aspect of the Renaissance interest in the world and man.” Comment. [1996, 20 Marks]
The increasing wealth, wider travel, and a greater knowledge of the outside world led to a new philosophy and outlook on life which is collectively called Renaissance.
The Renaissance was the discovery of the world The exploration of the globe
Systematic exploration of the universe which is what we call science
| The Renaissance was the discovery of man Up till Renaissance, the inspiration was mainly from the Church to have a better life in the heaven. But now the man was interested in the earthly affairs and having a better life here in this world only, in which he lived => rebirth of the human spirit [reflected in the art, architecture, literature, music]. New philosophy was human-centred and emphasized humanism.
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The Renaissance did not come quickly or easily but for many centuries, much of the history of Europe saw a constant clash between the old traditions of the middle Ages and the new ways of the modern world. Under the two formulas, discovery of world and discovery of man everything of this period can be summed up.
“The discovery of the new world, coinciding with the swift diffusion of printed books, taught the Europeans that ‚ "Truth", in Bacon’s noble phrase, "is the daughter not of authority, but of time.” Comment. [1989, 20 Marks]
“The human understanding when it has once adopted an opinion (either as being the received opinion, or as being agreeable to itself) draws all things else to support and agree with it. And though here be a greater number and weight of instances to be found on the other side, yet these it either neglects and despises, or else by some distinction sets aside and rejects; in order that by this great and pernicious predetermination the authority of its former conclusions may remain inviolate.”
With regard to authority, it is the greatest weakness to attribute infinite credit to particular authors, and to refuse his own prerogative to time, the author of all authors, and, therefore, of all authority. For, truth is rightly named the daughter of time, not of authority. It is not wonderful, therefore, if the bonds of antiquity, authority, and unanimity, have so enchained the power of man, that he is unable (as if bewitched) to become familiar with things themselves.
“The Renaissance scholars laid the eggs which Luther; the father of the reformation later on hatched.” Discuss. [2006, 60 Marks]
What was Lutheran Revolution about? How diversity in thoughts led to humanism of Enlightenment?
Lutheran Revolution - idea that Christians should themselves read the Bible [vernacular transactions of which were beginning to roll-off Gutenberg's newly invented printing press] rather than have it presented to them by priests.
Since the testaments had many ambiguous thing related to contemporary times, Protestant communities springing up across northern chose to grapple with these scriptural conundrums themselves in self-study sessions rather than take cues from Church in Rome. BY the time new Protestant sects from Calvinists and Anabaptists to Puritans and Presbyterians emerged and believed in different things. After a brutal conflict they ultimately infused a more tolerant and sceptical spirit across Europe that gave birth to the liberal, secular, and humanist values of the 18th Century Enlightenment.
“His (Martin Luther’s) rebellion was essentially popular and national.” Comment. [1991, 20 Marks]
Luther’s popularity was due to his theological ideas, yet it is unlikely that much of the population fully understood his theories. The majority were uneducated, and unable to read, therefore Luther’s theses were likely only to be read and understood by a small number of intellectuals. That is not to say that his beliefs were entirely irrelevant to his popularity, as many of these were misinterpreted to correspond with the demands of the peasants. This was evident in the peasant revolt which was encouraged by Luther’s theory of spiritual equality, mistakenly taken to mean that all people should be equal resulting in rebellion of the peasants against landowners. Furthermore, his concept of sola fida, justification by faith alone, appeared to offer an easier route to heaven than arduous penance. By this it could be argued that Luther’s ideas were partially a contribution to his success, but they were not the most significant factor, especially since many of the peasants demands consisted of far more than just Reformist ideas.
The feeling of German nationalism that Luther upheld was an important contributing factor for his success. Arguably, Luther became a symbol for German pride. The Imperial Knights also provided support for Luther, such as Ulrich Von Hutton who merged Luther’s religious teachings with his own political ideas of renewing Germany, intending to stop papal taxation to provide money for imperial armies. The amount of papal taxation was naturally a cause for resentment, which mostly went towards rebuilding the St. Peters basilica in Rome.
The invention of the printing press was highly significant as it gave Luther the ability to rapidly dispatch his word before the nobility began to take notice and try to stand up against it. However, the lack of literacy meant that the impact of the pamphlets distributed was reduced. Instead, the lack of censorship [on account of lack of nation state] could be seen as a more crucial factor as it gave Luther the opportunity to spread his word more widely before being noticed.
“Of all forms assumed by the Protestant Reformation, Calvinism has been the most far- reaching in its scope and the most profound in its influence.” Comment. [2000, 20 Marks]
Calvinism (also called the Reformed tradition, Reformed Christianity, Reformed Protestantism, or the Reformed faith) is a major branch of Protestantism that follows the theological tradition and forms of Christian practice of John Calvin and other Reformation-era theologians.
Calvinists broke from the Roman Catholic Church in the 16th century. Calvinism differs from Lutherans on the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist, theories of worship, and the use of God's law for believers, among other things.
John calvin: money should be lent to people in dire need without hope of interest, while a modest interest rate of 5% should be permitted in relation to other borrowers.
Several models of Reformation
In the 16th century the Reformation developed in four directions:
the Lutheran Reformation started in Germany and was supported by the princes and some urban elements, whereas in Sweden it was supported by the Church and the sovereign,
the Reformed branch started in Switzerland with Zwingli and in Geneva with Calvin, heavily relied on mainstream, or at least middle class, support,
the Anglican Reformation, in England, dictated by the sovereign, took place in the church hierarchy
The Radical Reformation started with mainstream elements in Germany and in Switzerland who reckoned that the Lutherans and the Reformed did not go far enough. For them the Reformation had stopped half-way, so they profoundly questioned the dogmas and ecclesiology of the Catholic Church.
The Protestant Reformation confirmed States and stabilised languages
In the 16th century the Protestant Reformation was directly linked to the establishment of nation-States. By enabling everyone to read the Scriptures and to pray God in their own language, it contributed to the development of, for example, the German, English, French and Swedish languages. Translation of the Bible by Luther, for example, helped national theological and philosophical literature emerge.
“Rousseau strove to reconcile the liberty of the individual and the institution of Government through a new vision of the Contract-Theory of Government.” Critically examine. [2014, 10 Marks]
Jean-Jacques Rousseau was 18th Century French Philosopher whose work led to ‘Age of Enlightenment’. Rousseau was the philosopher of the age of romanticism who became famous from the essay in which he argued that science and civilization have negatively affected the society and the driving force of the people are greed, jealous and self-love.
A man who said first the land is mine and people believed is the start of the civil society = this very aspect have created a lot of horror and bloodshed in the society. He absolutely despised private property which can be said as the precursor to socialism and communism.
Unlike Hobbes he was not agreement with the concept of absolute monarchy hence the divine rule of the kings. The basis of disagreement to which was the restriction in the freedom.
Another famous theory of the Rousseau is social contract theory in which he propounded that there is not any third party which is sovereign rather the collective i.e. the general will of the population as the sovereign. He also argued that goal of government is to secure freedom liberty and justice for the all within the states regardless of the will of the majority, which effectively can be seen as an advocacy to the democracy.
Hence Rousseau can be described as a thinker who was libertarian by the thought held justice, equality, fraternity as the main focal point of his philosophy which later inspired the French Revolution.
“Rousseau’s political philosophy contains the seeds of Socialism, Absolutism and Democracy.” Comment. [2004, 20 Marks]
Rousseau ideas were mainly on rationalistic approach and questioning authority on social aspects. His approach on various aspects were as follows;
Absolutism: Reflected in Rousseau’s views views on Human Rights - Believed in sovereignty of people and criticized absolute monarchy – enslaves people [MAN IS BORN FREE AND EVERYWHERE HE IS IN CHAINS]. Not to surrender rights and duties to higher authority which may lead to immoral actions and degradation of society [TO RENOUNCE LIBERTY IS TO RENOUNCE BEING A MAN]. He believed absolutism results in lack of human concern where human issues were unaddressed.
Democracy: According to Rousseau representative democracy is not true and real democracy. He felt it’s another form of feudal rule. He even believed direct democracy is the real democracy and consent of people is needed in decisions. He stressed no state was ready for direct democracy. Controlled rationalism is the necessary aspect in order to free from corruption and self-interest.
Socialism: In his Emile, he stressed emergence of property created inequality among people. He emphasized on 'General Will' which acts as basis for social life. It creates citizen responsibility for common interest. In his 'Discourse on origin of inequality' he mentioned to 'Go back to nature and rework'. Emile emphasized that administrative and educational system are the two tools needed to be employed to tackle corruption and inequality.
Rousseau’s views views on Education (Book- Emile) - Education does not merely mean imparting or storing knowledge rather a healthy sense of self worth and rational development.
Criticism of Rousseau: He did not believe in gender equality and was not in favour of education of women.
“The promptings of the heart are more to be trusted than the logic of the mind.” — Rousseau. Evaluate this statement in the light of Rousseau's romanticism? [2011, 20 Marks]
"Voltaire has harnessed the horses of reason; Rousseau unchained the tiger of emotion"
The comment is in context of various approaches used by philosophers of 18th C to propagate their ideas among masses. Voltaire and Rousseau - two most important philosophers associated with age of enlightenment but approach used by them fundamentally different. Both of these belonged to same country France.
Voltaire was a firm believer in idea of logic and reason. He was scientific in his approach and thinking. This approach was used by him to target various superstition prevailing among the masses. The political philosophy of Voltaire was highly developed but his main focus was on evils of Church. The degenerated condition of French Church was resulting in exploitation of masses and misuse of public trust. It was targeted by Voltaire furiously. To liberate France from despotic Church Voltaire used his scientific and rational thinking.
Rousseau relied on emotional appeal while other philosophers targeted mind of citizens, Rousseau's target was the heart. The theory of Social Inequality presented by Rousseau in his pamphlet 'Discourse on Origin of Inequality' (1754) as well as his theory of Social Contract were both emotional in nature because his ideas could not be proven through scientific analysis.
The target of Voltaire was educated class of French society but Rousseau's target was masses - vast majority of illiterate common masses. It was Rousseau's preaching that created Revolution in French Citizens. That's why approach used by Voltaire and Rousseau are compared to horse and tiger because level of fierceness was different in both cases.
Both created circumstances for FR of 1789.
BR Ambedkar quotes him for his inclusive approach. His relevance is manifested today in bottom-up decentralised approaches followed by democracies.
“While the enlightenment project symbolised the intellectual supremacy of the West, the colonial project that followed was the material manifestation of liberal arrogance.”
Prominent Philosophers of Enlightenment
GE | 1458-1546 | Martin Luther | 1st to Q auth of Church - 95 thesis on fate of Church - demand reply |
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Geneva | 1509-1564 | John Calvin | Q bigotry of Church and demanded reforms. |
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FRANCE | 1689-1755 | Charles Louis Montesquieu | Spirit of Law - Absolute Monarchy of France = Mother of all evils | Sought SoP, Pop. Sovereignty, N. Rights of Man |
FR/UK | 1712-1778 | Jean Jacques Rousseau | once people elected ruler the latter should have more power | #DEMOCRATIC ABSOLUTISM. |
FR/US | 1632-1704 | John Locke | ltd power is surrendered to ruler for protection |
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FR | 1694-1778 | Voltaire | Exposed evils of Church - Monument of Bigotry & den of superst. | Much more radical than Montesquieu! |
US |
| Thomas Jefferson |
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| James Maddison |
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LA |
| Simon Bolivar |
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UK |
| Francis Bacon |
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| 1759-1898 | Mary Wolstencraft | 'Vindication of Rights of Women' - Equal edu for women & men | Disagree w/ societies treatment of women |
Features of Age of Enlightenment:
Universe governed by natural laws (NL) - not god not church | Progressive, Toleration - multiple ideas |
| Scientific = inventions = progress, prosperity |
End of theology = beginning of reason | Anti-superstition, anti-slavery |
Liberalism = state for individual not vice versa | Reformative = purge institution of evils |
Empiricism = practical things that can be touched | Intellectual Maturity of Mankind (Mass awakening) |
Egalitarianism, Constitutionalism = condemn divine monarchy/ royal absolutism | Rule of Law, not rule of Individual. |
Impact of Enlightenment | Spread of Enlightenment | Decline of Enlightenment |
New awakening, spread of LEF | Br, Ho, Fr, Ge -> Eu, Am, Asia, Afr | Climax in 18th C |
Scientific Inventions - I.R | Merchants and Traders | Appeal largely among Edu class |
# of revolution to fulfil aspiration of ppl AR, FR, EuR | Saloons (place of assemble); Newspapers, pamphlets, books | Working class exploited <-> Capitalist class = Philosophy of Individualism |
Progress in Literature Spirit of laws of Montes. All over Eu | Reforms by benvolent ruler - Masses felt utility of ideas | New Approach by thinkers <-> Romanticism = Emotional appeal |
Nationalism - AR, FR, GE, IT | Colonies and Christian Missionaries | Opening of 19th C - 'E' declined as cultural movement in Eu. |
End of Medievalism, Decolonisation | WW- African Soldiers |
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Royal absolutism to Benevolent Despotism |
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“The despotic rulers of Europe were influenced by the philosophy of Enlightenment and begun to follow a benevolent policy towards their subjects.” Critically examine. [2012, 20 Marks]
“Enlightened despots (Europe) were not necessarily politically liberal.” Critically examine. [2014, 10 Marks]
Is it correct to say that enlightened depots were really enlightened? Explain.
The enlightened despots were those absolute monarchs who were influenced by the ideas of enlightenment movement that progressed in 18th century Europe. The ideals of reason, liberty and religious freedom inspired the policies of these monarchies and led to some improvement in the lives of their subjects. The prominent enlightened monarchs were – Frederick the Great of Prussia, Catherine the Great of Russia, Joseph II of Austria, Prime Minister Pombal of Portugal, etc. Some of the above monarchs introduced reforms in the spirit of Enlightenment such as:-
Frederick the Great | Joseph II of Austria | Catherine the Great of Russia |
– declared himself as ‘first servant of the state’. He –
| – was a very radical reformer. He –
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However, the above reforms were related to socio-religious sphere. In the political sphere there were no noteworthy reforms.
The absolutist feature did not change and they continued to enjoy despotic authority.
No Constitution was adopted. And no parliamentary institutions were created. They continued to believe in semi-divine monarchy. Word of King was still the law of the land.
Besides some monarchs like Catherine continued to imprison her opponents. Pombal of Portugal used Enlightenment to crush opposition and suppress criticism. Some even used enlightenment ideals to advance colonial exploitation.
In the above light it can be concluded that barring the few spheres such as socio-religious-cultural, the enlightened despots were not necessarily enlightened in others (politically).
“…he (Voltaire) was living in the Age of Enlightenment … . The age itself was not enlightened.” — E. Kant. Critically evaluate. [2010, 20 Marks]
“for Kant, enlightenment is mankind’s final coming of age, the emancipation of the human consciousness from an immature state of ignorance and error.” Critically examine. [2013, 20 Mark]
What was the Kant's idea of enlightenment? How he differentiated between age of enlightenment and enlightened age?
In his essay, ‘What is Enlightenment?’ (1784), Kant defined it as ‘ Man’s emergence from his self-imposed immaturity.’ The ability to use ones courage and wisdom in every sphere and walks of life is Kant’s motto of Enlightenment.
On the basis of his talisman of reason and logic, instead of faith, superstition etc he called for a state based on Universal Moral Law which is democratic and which protects freedom and liberty.
Kant believed his times were better than the medieval because now there is liberty to use one’s reason to some extent.
A votary of ‘Doctrine of Progress’ he believed that a future even better than present can be created with moral application of science, technology and industrialisation.
Religious tolerance, a state that protects basic rights and a progressive outlook were the basis of Enlightenment for KANT.
Age of Enlightenment vs the Enlightened Age: Kant described 18th Century as the Age of Enlightenment, because there was now scope and freedom to some extent to use one’s reason in all walks of life. An enlightened age to Kant is that time in future where there is complete liberty and freedom to use one’s own reason. A democratic state which protects the freedom of speech and liberty is the basis of such an age.
Thomas Hobbes (English) - book called ‘Leviathon’.
Humans are basically selfish in nature and would end up hurting other fellow human beings, if there isn’t any central authority to put a check on their behaviour. As per his view people have entered into a social contract by giving up their rights to a sovereign authority who can maintain order and peace in the society.
The relevance can be ascertained from the civil war and instability prevailing across West Asia and North Africa. It can be concluded that the tribal groups in Syria and Iraq are fighting against each other for authority to satisfy their self-interest due to the incapacity of central authority which has become mere spectator of events unfolding.
Problems like Left Wing Extremism can be solved if they show loyalty to the Parliamentary democracy. The communal riots and caste violence reinforce the relevance of Hobbes’ ideas. Government plays an essential role of law and order.
Despite there being democracy, the powerful members of society dictate the course of action.
“The Enlightenment represented alternative approaches to modernity, alternative habits of mind and heart, of conscience and sensibility.” Discuss. [2008, 60 Marks]
The British, American, and French Enlightenments - At a critical moment in history, these three Enlightenments represented alternative approaches to modernity, alternative habits of mind and heart, of consciousness and sensibility.
The British Enlightenment represents “the sociology of virtue,” the French “the ideology of reason,” the American “the politics of liberty.”
The British moral philosophers were sociologists as much as philosophers; they looked to the social virtues (“social affections”) as the basis of a healthy and humane society. The Americans had a political mission: to create a new “science of politics” that would establish the new republic upon a sound foundation of liberty. The French had a more exalted purpose: to make reason the governing principle not only of mind but of society and the polity as well–to “rationalize,” as it were, the world. This is not to deny the role of virtue, reason, and liberty in all the Enlightenments–only to suggest a very different set of priorities in each of them.
Within each of these Enlightenments there were important differences. Montesquieu, in a sense, belonged more to the British than to the French Enlightenment.
The Enlightenment has always been identified with the French though the French themselves credited the English trinity, Bacon, Locke, and Newton, with the ideas that inspired their own Enlightenment.
Adam Smith went so far as to propose a state-administered, state-supported system of education for those “bred to the lowest occupation.” French philosophers, on the other hand, were notably uninterested in, even hostile to, popular education. Voltaire rebuked the author of a book recommending a national system of education. Even Rousseau made it clear that he was not recommending any kind of education for the masses.
Voltaire was never disabused of the idea of enlightened despotism. Even after Frederick the Great had had him removed from his court he continued to defend not only Frederick but also Catherine, the czarina of Russia. Montesquieu on the other in his ‘Spirit of Laws’ advocated principle of the separation of powers.
Whereas the French philosophers believed that “religious zeal … will be extinguished as freedom and enlightenment increase,” America proved exactly the opposite.
Rousseau appealed to emotions (heart rather than mind), Voltaire advocate reason.
John Locke favoured individualism where Rousseau favoured Collectivism.
“France was more fertile than Britain in producing new Socialist theories and movements, though they bore less concrete results in France than in Britain.” [2008, 20 Marks] [2015, 10m]
As the industrial revolution first occurred in Western Europe, the socialist ideas and practices also gained currency there especially in Britain and France.
In the wake of industrial revolution, in France,
Charles Power urged reconstitution of society including abolition of the wage system and complete equality of sexes.
French journalist Louis Blanc stood like many against the new industrial society and particularly opposed the exploitation of working class. Following them, workers made a system of workshops governed by workers which would guarantee jobs and security for all.
Proudhon condemned the profits accruing to employers at the expense of their employees.
France was better ground because of more and wide effect of philosophical thinkers like Rousseau.
Being the presence of 97% commons, who were exploited but were educated, philosophical theories and movements could ripe better fruits here.
But then why in Britain bore more results, because
away from continental Europe thus giving advantage of isolation from local and regional conflicts. Because of industrial revolution developed here at first which provided ground for people to ask for legitimate rights and move against govt (1832 rights and chartist movement).
In Britain, the most persuasive thinker was Robert Owen. He argued against the middle class belief that profit motive should be allowed to shape the social and economic organization advocating the general reorganization of society on the basis of cooperation, with communities rewarding the workers solely on the basis of their actual labor.
Unlike France, British workers had to agitate for their rights.
But British agitations bore more result, with initiative finally taken by the government and in the beginning of second half of 19th C, a series of legislations were passed conferring the workers with trade union rights and also empowering them to exercise their right of franchise.
If we, were to define our conception of the State, our answer would be that the State is the banker of the poor. The government would finance and supervise the purchase of productive equipment and the formation of workshops.” In light of the above statement of Louis Blanc, throw light on the Pre-Marxist Socialist Thought in Europe. [2014, 20 Marks]
Pre-Marxist Socialist thought in Europe (French Socialism)
Utopian Socialism - Visions of imaginary ideal societies. No class struggle ~ no revolution. Work within and reform capitalist society. Robert Owen and Charles Fourier Private initiative, Like minded people cooperation New Harmony, USA = self sufficient, coop community: - Owen failed Saint Simon - stressed on 'Organization' - govt. role | Louis Blanc 'The Organization of labour' -> state financed <=> workers controlled (workshop) Once workshops on feet, govt. withdrew its support. Utopian - 'reliance on workers' to make own arrangement for communal living. Step ahead of utopian - moved socialism from 'philanthropy to politics'. Not Organized + No scientific solution to problem => vision remained Utopia. |
Karl Marx did not talk about ethics directly but his views can be interpreted as views on ethics. His ethics is shaped by philosophy of communism in which he claimed to establish a society based on principle of Justice, Equity, Equality and Communal ownership of property. Contrary to Capitalist ethics. His intense focus is on welfare of Proletariat class which he sees as the most exploited and deprived class.
“Marxian Communism is primarily the offspring of German Hegelianism and French Socialism.” Comment. [2001, 20 Marks]
Marxian Communism which is often cited for its spectacular views on socialism and giving it a form which paved the way for many revolutions to happen in future. However, it itself is believed to be the product of inspirations drawn from earlier philosophers like Hegel and some prominent thinkers of early era in France.
Karl Marx, the proponent of Marxian communism and socialism, was said to be inspired by the great German thinker, and believed to have belong to his left wing school of revolutionaries. Marx views of history known as ‘historical materialism’ was said to be influenced by Hegal’s conception of history. However, Hegal was an idealist. Marx hence propounded the materialistic aspects in his theory of History.
Marxian communism similarly draws inspiration from early French Philosophers such as Saint Simon and Charles Furea during his visit to France. Their views on poor workers and the possible solution via socialism greatly inspired Marx. However, the French Philosophers scratched the surface of socialism which was given a full flavor by Marx and accepted as a economic and political system by the world at large.
Hence, it is apt to conclude that though Marxian communism and socialism was influenced and inspired an influenced to a certain extent by Hegal’s and French thinkers, a new sprit was given to it in order to be accepted by the world at large.
FRENCH S + GERMAN HEGELIANISM = MARXIAN COMMUNISM
French: Rousseau - egalitarian; attacked private property. Utopian - Saint Simon - recognition of working class.
German: Hegelian dialectic = framework for guiding thoughts and actions: 3 step
Thesis (intellectual proposition) | Antithesis (reaction to proposition) | Synthesis (reconciliation) |
Original thought -> | Opposing thought | Resolving thought |
French Revolution + | Reign of Terror -> | Constitutional State of free citizens |
Progressive + | Conservative = | Consensus |
Marxian view of History = 'Dialectical Materialism' [DM]
Offspring of Hegelian Dialectical but in modified form. |
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H: New Ideas => Change way of life :: M: Way we live -> develop new ideas. | ** way of life <=> economic relationship |
| Thesis Opposed by | Antithesis reconciled by | Synthesis |
Middle Ages | Feudalism - Aristocracy | Bourgeoisie - Cities - Class | Capitalism - Private ownership |
I.R. | Capitalism - Educated Class | Proletariat - Factories | Socialism - human needs |
| Socialism | -not clear how- | Communism - no state |
Marx emphasised: proletariat have to overthrow existing exploitative capitalist society through revolution.
“Karl” Marx applied his critical intelligence to Wealth of Nations…. Where Smith had seen only the sunlight, Marx saw only the shadows thrown upon the human scene by the unimpeded exercise of individual liberty. (Elucidate.)
Smith in Wealth of Nations says the division of labor enabled one man to be as much as 4,800 times more productive than if he worked alone.
He suggested that competition between businesses prevents exploitation of consumers by ensuring fair prices and quality products, encouraging constant economic innovation, and satisfying consumer demand. In short, competition keeps everyone honest, because customers treated unfairly by one business can always patronize another instead.
Though Smith predicted many of the successes of industrial capitalism, he lived too early in the Industrial Revolution to see its worst excesses. It would take several more decades to produce a critic whose cynicism toward capitalism matched Smith’s optimism. That critic was Karl Marx
Why did Marx object to capitalism? He believed that “capitalists” (the owners of the machines, property, and infrastructure used to produce things) were a separate class from the workers, or “proletariat,” who own nothing but the right to sell their labor in exchange for wages. Marx theorized that capitalists, in competition with each other for profits, would squeeze as much work as possible out of the proletariat at the lowest possible price. Furthermore, competition would cause some capitalists’ firms to fail, increasing unemployment (and thus misery and poverty) among the proletariat. Innovations in technology were not necessarily positive; new machines would add to unemployment (by rendering human labor increasingly inefficient and obsolete) while also making work dull, repetitive, and alienating.
Yet Marx was not altogether dismissive of capitalism, which he saw as a necessary stage for building a society’s standard of living. But in his view, the proletariat’s discontent would inevitably lead it to overthrow the ruling classes and create a more equitable society, at first socialist (wherein the state would control the economy and distribute resources more evenly) and then purely communist (a stateless, classless, egalitarian society without private property or nationality).
To lead a good life is the aim of this philosophy.
Political Philosophy are proposed concept by Philosophers around which the individuals frame the basic principles of their life. It not only teaches us what is a good life but also how to attain such a state. Plato is the father of political philosophy.
In contemporary times Gandhi, Aurobindo, Tagore, Ambedkar and John Rawls can be considered as political philosophers.
Aristotle described two types of political revolution: Complete change from one constitution to another. Modification of an existing constitution.
SHAPING OF POLITICAL PHILOSOPHIES IN 18TH CENTURY:- | SHAPING OF POLITICAL PHILOSOPHIES IN 19TH CENTURY:- | 20th CE:- Disintegration of state |
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“The Heavenly Land system was significant in that it greatly expanded the idea of equalizing rich and poor and landowning which the peasant wars had put forward in the past.” Comment. [1991, 20 Marks]
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