Syllabus:
Factors leading to the birth of Indian Nationalism; Politics of Association;
The Foundation of the Indian National Congress; (The Safety-valve thesis relating to the birth of the Congress;)
Programme and objectives of Early Congress; The social composition of early Congress leadership; The Moderates and Extremists;
The Partition of Bengal (1905); The Swadeshi Movement in Bengal; The economic and political aspects of Swadeshi Movement; Home Rule League
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MAINS QUESTIONS:
The new India was not to be built up, as late nineteenth century patriots had thought, by copious draught from the past, but rather by frequent injections from the energetic contemporary west. Comment.[1990, 20m]
[Answer: Role of 19th century poets/writers vis a vis 20th Century - Tagore/Gandhi/Annie/Tilak]
The ROLE OF POETS IN FREEDOM STRUGGLE - They gave the concepts and visions of freedom. The revolutionary freedom fighters gave shape and content to these concepts and visions.
In the north, Ajit Singh’s Pagri Sambhal O Jatta, Pagri Sambhal Oye, Loot Leya Maal Tera, Haal Behal Oye, stirred the peasants by depicting their plight land exploitation.
The partition of Bengal, the indigo revolt, India’s first battle form freedom in 1857, along with the glorious deeds of warriors and martyrs of yore became their themes.
In the 19th Century the poetry of Wajid Ali Shah in Lucknow and Ghalib and Bahadur Shah Zafar in Delhi, of the ‘Young Bengal’ movement poet Michael Madhusudan Dutt in Bengal and the Gujarati poet Dalpat Ram set the tone for the poets of freedom in the later period.
Lalan Shah Fakir’s poems (called Lalan Geet / folk songs of Bauls in Bangladesh) acted as a syncretic bridge in the two Bengals - A contemporary of Ramakrishna Paramahamsa and Swami Vivekananda, Lalan mixed the teachings of Bengal’s Vaishnav hero Sri Chaitanya and Lord Krishna with the Islamic quest for Allah. Even after more than a century of Lalan’s demise, his songs continue to resonate on both sides of Bengal. Lalan’s memories serve as a reminder that communal disturbances in Bengal — right from the Partition violence to the recent Basirhat riot — cannot erase the harmonious history and syncretic heritage that signify peaceful coexistence between Hindus and Muslims.
The 20th century saw the poets emerging out of reformism and revivalism to confront the alien ruler directly and support the freedom fighters and mass movements.
Bande Mataram, out of Bankim Chandra’s revolutionary novel Anand Math and Jana Gana Mana Adhinayak Jaye Hey of Gurudev Rabindra Nath Tagore, which was later to be honoured as the National Anthem of India. They inspired the Bengal poets to create immortal songs of freedom. Among the tallest of them was also Nazrul Islam.
Kazi Nazrul Islam championed the cause of nationalism and secularism in pre-independence India. The most radical instinct in his work today is not his dedicated opposition to an occupying foreign rule — it is the vision of a secular society that he embodied in his poetry. His attempt to “rise above” any markers of identity wasn’t a simple desire to get rid of them or pretend they did not exist, but rather, a call to recognise these barriers as man-made and, therefore, constantly negotiable, even changeable in order to create our place in the world. Thus, it is completely misguided to think of him as a “Hindu” poet — good or bad — or even a “Muslim” poet.
Subramanian Bharati in the South took the freedom struggle as an act of faith, dharma of the Indian. Bharati’s first collection entitled Songs of Freedom was published in 1908 and was part of the Bande Mataram Movement and Lokmanya Tilak’s activities to foster the spirit of solidarity, nationalism, sacrifice, devotion and struggle. His songs went into the blood of Tamil youth. Popularly known as "Mahakavi Bharati".
Sarojini Naidu, one of the few great Indian poets writing in English, called Motherland ‘the sovereign empress of the past’ and eulogised India in her poems published in three collections, The Golden Threshold (1905), The Bird of Time (1912) and the Broken Wing (1917). She was so shocked by the Jallianwala massacre that she stopped writing poetry after that.
Dr. Mohammad Iqbal’s Sare Jahan Se Achcha Hindustan Hamara, which acquired the honour of being called Tarana-e-Hindi or the Song of the Indian, and Bismil’s Sarfaroshi Ki Tamanna Ab Hamarey Dil Men hai are the other immortal songs.
Great poets of the progressive movement whose poetic word sought to raise banners of revolt on the socio-economic front too. Among these were Hasrat Mohani, Faiz Ahmad Faiz, Kaifi Aazmi, Hans Raj Rahbar and Ali Sardar Jafari.
The Hindi stream of freedom poetry perhaps began with Bhartendu Harish Chandra’s Bharat Durdasha. It was taken up by great poets like Maithli Sharan Gupta, Ram Dhari Singh Dinkar, Balkrishna Sharma Naveen, Hari Vansh Rai Bachchan and Subhadra Kumari Chauhan who wrote Khoob Ladi Mardani Woh To Jhansi Wali Rani Thi, meaning she fought so well like a man, for, she was the Rani of Jhansi.
Rediscovery of India's past was a mixed blessing for the nationalist movement. Examine.
In the 19th C many Indians realized that social and religious reformation was an essential condition for the all-round development of the country on modern line and for the growth of national unity and solidarity. Most of these reformation movements were based on the twin doctrines of Reason (rationalism) and Humanism, though they also sometimes tended to appeal to faith and ancient authority to bolster their appeal. Their tendency to look backward, appeal to past greatness and to rely on spiritual authority had many implications for the nationalist movement.
Positive aspects: | Negative aspects: |
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Due to this the process of evolution of a composite culture which was evident throughout Indian History showed signs of being arrested with the rise of another form of consciousness - communal consciousness - along with national consciousness among the middle classes. |
The current practice of periodization of 'Early Modern India' is based on a shift from the old periodization of 'Muslim India' - 'British India' to the more secularist one of 'Medieval India' - Modern India, which puts Indian History in a Universalist chronological structure. Critically Examine. [2012, 10m]
Historians divide history to different periods when they intend to highlight the central character of a certain period. From this angle, breaking down a country's history to different periods appears logical and appropriate. Such description helps the reader to understand how the society, its customs, economy, religion and art changed as the country passed from one era to the next.
IMPERIALIST Historiography: | SECULAR Historiography: |
Had divide period of India into H, M and Br which was clearly on communal lines and supremacy of Br crown over India. Famous 19th C utilitarian philosopher and historian James Mill in his book 'A History of Br India' had for the first time divided India's history into three period. Muslim period was considered dark period while glorifying Hindu period. It was an imperialist design to legitimize the Br rule while claiming to liberate ancient Indian civilisation from medieval dark period. This periodization was also favoured by Hindu Nationalist historians. | Developed as a response to the communal categorization of Indian History that preferred dividing into Ancient, Medieval and Modern Period. Against the conception of conflicting separate and homogenous communities, it emphasised the porosity and open-endedness of the boundaries between communities, their fragmentation and heterogeneity. A secularist conception of history was advocated by Marxist historians. They focused on subaltern approach to Indian history where for the first time peasants, tribes, poor and the disadvantaged were given more emphasis than the privileged. DD Koshambi's "An introduction to the study of Indian History" was amongst the first to focus on common man with periodization of history in terms of ancient, medieval and modern period. RS Sharma tried to draw parallels of Indian feudalism with European feudalism and in a way brought Indian history closer to the Universalist chronological structure. |
Criticism: Simply on the basis of fact that rulers were Hindu, M and Br. Irrespective of the fact that Indian masses did not conform to such description. Heavily tilted in favour of ruling class and common mass was virtually absent from the field. Hindu period was not homogenous in tradition nor did Hindu traditions disappear when Islamic rule spread in India. Islamic rule was very heterogeneous in character and cooperation between H and M in many spheres was more important than a well-defined Islamic rule spread in India. Not whole India was ruled anytime by Islamic rulers or Br rulers. This type of historiography lacked an evolutionary explanation to the changes that took place throughout history. | This type too had criticism: Ancient, Medieval and Modern History cannot be clearly identified in India like European countries. Medieval Europe is considered as feudal but in India feudalism was not clearly defined and had different characteristics. Secularist methods of periodization was borrowed from Western concept and it was easy to adopt and interpret. As per this methodology, history in 'Modern' times was marked by science, rationality, democracy, egalitarianism, liberty and Industrial Revolution and during Br rule, we will be assumed to have lived in a 'Modern' era. But Indians had no equality, liberty nor democracy and India underwent de-industrialisation.
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Rabindranath Tagore’s nationalism was based on a Catholic internationalism. Comment. [2003, 20m]
Catholic internationalism can be defined as the sum of practices, representations and organizations that unite believers of different nationalities or ethnicities in a global effort to reform modern society in accordance with the Church’s principles.
Gandhi defended nationalism. He said that one must go through nationalism to reach internationalism, in the same way that one must go through war to reach peace.
Tagore pressed for more room for reasoning, and for a less traditionalist view, a greater interest in the rest of the world, and more respect for science and for objectivity generally.
He condemned romantic over-attachment to the past, what he called the tying of India to the past "like a sacrificial goat tethered to a post," and he accused men who displayed it - they seemed to him reactionary - of not knowing what true political freedom was, pointing out that it is from English thinkers and English books that the very notion of political liberty was derived.
Nothing, perhaps, expresses his values as clearly as a poem in Gitanjali
(Where the mind is without fear and the head is held high; Where knowledge is free; Where the world has not been broken up into fragments by narrow domestic walls; ... Where the clear stream of reason has not lost its way into the dreary desert sand of dead habit; ... Into that heaven of freedom, my Father, let my country awake).
Rabindranath's qualified support for nationalist movements - and his opposition to the un-freedom of alien rule - came from this commitment. So did his reservations about patriotism, which, he argued, can limit both the freedom to engage ideas from outside "narrow domestic walls" and the freedom also to support the causes of people in other countries. Rabindranath's passion for freedom underlies his firm opposition to unreasoned traditionalism, which makes one a prisoner of the past (lost, as he put it, in "the dreary desert sand of dead habit".
The need for synthesis between one’s own culture and the different one
It can be found in his advice to Indian students abroad. In 1907 he wrote to his son-in-law Nagendranath Gangulee, who had gone to America to study agriculture:
To get on familiar terms with the local people is a part of your education. To know only agriculture is not enough; you must know America too. Of course if, in the process of knowing America, one begins to lose one's identity and falls into the trap of becoming an Americanised person contemptuous of everything Indian, it is preferable to stay in a locked room.
“It was in this almost unrecognizable form that the Ilbert Bill was finally enacted it was primarily a failure of the Viceroy.” Comment. [1992, 20m]
The Ilbert Bill was the most extreme but by no means isolated expression of white racism. Comment. [1987, 20m]
The national democratic awakening of the Indian people found expression of white racism. Comment. [1987, 20m]
Which events triggered the intensification of dissatisfaction with the British rule in India during the 1870s and 1880s? Discuss why these events were unpopular among the public and nationalists alike.
Events which triggered the intensification of dissatisfaction:-
Arms Act, 1878 - disallowing Indians from possessing arms.
Vernacular Press Act, 1878 - confiscate the assets of newspapers including their printing presses if the newspapers published anything [mainly nationalist agenda] that was found “objectionable” => instigated the intelligentsia which was the main body writing in such local languages to give a political dissemination and ideas to people about British rule.
Ilbert Bill, 1883 - there was a furore over the attempt by the government (C.P. Ilbert, Law Member) to introduce the Ilbert Bill. The bill provided for the trial of British or European persons by Indians, and sought equality between British and Indian judges in the country. But when white opposition forced the government to withdraw the bill, Indians were enraged. This was seen in terms of cultural and racial supremacy of British and thus got wider public attention and highlighted the attitude of Britishers towards India. Ilbert Bill Controversy was a high watermark in the history of Indian National Movement.
Cultural Divide - Saligram Idol Case and subsequent imprisonment of SN Banerjee.
Deccan Riots, 1875 - In 1875, ryots from surrounding rural areas [Supa, Poona district] gathered and attacked the shopkeepers, demanding their account books and debt bonds. They burnt account books, looted grain shops, and in some cases set fire to the houses of sahukars (persons who acted as both a moneylender and a trader). From Poona the revolt spread to Ahmednagar and even further. More than thirty villages were affected. Deccan Riots Commission was established which produced a report to the British Parliament in 1878.
Increase in political consciousness - by political associations who came into being in 1870s -1880s = Poona Sarvajanik S, Indian A, Madras Mahajan S, Bombay Presidency Association and INC.
Role of leaders – The early leaders like – Dadabhai Naroji helped Indians in understanding the cruel and exploitative nature of colonialism, with the help of his ‘Drain theory’. Other leaders – R.C. Dutt (Economic history of India), Pherozshah Mehta, Surendranth Banerjee, S.Subramania Iyer, etc.
However the above events were unpopular among public and nationalist because:-
Police posts were established in villages to frighten rebellious peasants into submission. Troops were quickly called in and many convicted.
There was lack of common political platform and consensus. Whatsoever, platforms were there, they were regional in character with limited outreach.
These events were regional in nature and thus they had limited scale of impact.
Support of Indians to Britishers – Moneylenders, Zamindars and certain group of intelligentsia, princely states.
Freedom of speech and expression were curbed, which denied the expression for intellectual nationalist and means of information for common people.
All these dissatisfaction and consciousness aroused by political association cumulatively led to establishment of Indian national Congress in 1885, which provided platforms to the leaders to address such causes and negotiate with the British Government.
"The idea behind the foundation of Congress was not only to save the British rule from any danger that threatened it but intention was even to strengthen it, the redress of political grievances and political advance of India was only a by-product and of secondary importance". L Rai.
SN Banerjee's role - IN Conference 1883; + his friendship with Italian revolutionary Mazzini => Hume was alarmed.
Criticism - Need for national platform was already raised; Work of congress revealed it was not a safety valve. It criticised Br government from very start.
Surendranath Banerjee called the Indian Burke. Burke here refers to Edmund Burke, an Irish statesman who served as an MP for many years in the House of Commons. Burke is remembered for his support for Catholic emancipation, the impeachment of Warren Hastings from the East India Company, and for his later opposition to the French Revolution.
He firmly opposed the Partition of Bengal. He founded the Indian Association (1876) to agitate for political reforms; objectives = "promoting by every legitimate means the political, intellectual and material advancement of the people". It later merged with INC.
To what extent was the emergence of the Congress in 1885 the culmination of a process of political awakening that had its beginning in the 1870s? [2000, 60m]
Political activities began in India in the second half of 19th C in a peaceful way. This led to the formation of many political organisations which played an important role in the political awakening of the common people and in exposing the true nature of Colonial economy. Some of these organisations were -
Association of Land lords and Bengal British India Society - In 1851 both of these were merged to form the British India Association. But this organisation was formed only to safeguard the interests of land lords.
Indian League - Established by Shisir Kumar Ghosh in 1875 which aimed at awakening of national consciousness among Indians and to make them politically educated.
Indian Association - It was established by SN Banerjee in 1876. It aimed at creating a strong national public opinion, tried to unite all Indians on the basis of national feeling and focused on maintaining cordial relations between H & M.
Poona Sarvajanik Sabha - It was founded in 1867. It attempted to form a bridge between the government and the Indian Public. It started the Magazine, 'Quarterly Journal' for the same purpose.
These organisations led to the starting of political awakening among the masses and created an atmosphere of debates and discussions. The most important among them was the Indian Association. It protested when the age for 'All India Civil Services' was reduced, it also opposed the Arms Act and the Vernacular Press Act. It also protested against the British Nationals who were against the passing of the Ilbert bill. Thus, the Indian Association participated in awakening public opinion and expressing public resentment through processions and public meetings.
Therefore, these organisations paved the way for the formation of 'All India Congress'. These organisations were gradually absorbed in All India Congress which became the foremost political organisation. Thus, the emergence of the Congress in 1885 was the culmination of a process of political awakening that had its beginning in the 1870s.
Discuss ‘the safety valve’ theory. Does it satisfactorily explain the foundation of the Indian National Congress? [1991, 60m]
“The ‘safety-valve thesis’ does not adequately explain the birth of the Indian National Congress in 1885.” Critically examine.
The conspiracy theory [SAFETY-VALVE] that originated from William Wedderburn’s biography of Home published in 1913 has now been (since 1950s) discredited by my historians.
Why? First of all none of those 7 volumes of secret reports (that talked about possible popular revolt) have been traced either in India or London. Except for William’s biography no other reference of such secret reports is found.
Lord Dufferin’s private papers opened up in 1950s exploding the myth of Dufferin’s sponsorship of Congress. He did meet Hume but ordered Bombay government against the delegates meet.
Probably William wanted to portray Hume as a British patriot. Hume was a political liberal who visualised an all India organisation which would represent Indian interests and act as Her Majesty’s opposition.
Examine the economic and social factors which led to the rise of Indian nationalism in the second half of the nineteenth century. [2001, 60m]
With or without Hume, sooner or later the Congress would have had emerged. How?
1850 – Protests against missionaries intervention and LEX LOCI Act (* Lex Loci 1850 was an Indian law designed to protect the civil rights of religious converts - right to inherit ancestral property to Hindu converts to Christianity). [*Lex loci is a legal term meaning that the place (locus) where the crime was committed defines which law (lex) the crime should be viewed through.]
1867 – Nationwide protest against proposed Income Tax and demand for balanced budget (* Balanced budget – stimulus without creating additional fiscal deficit).
1877 – Demand for Indianisation of Civil Services and against Lytton’s Afghan adventures.
1878 – Organisation of Indian Press and Protest against Vernacular Press Act.
1881 – Protest against Plantation Labour (PL) and Inland Emigration Act (condemned PL to serfdom).
1883 – ILBERT Bill – Nationwide Protest.
Indian Association was the most articulate of such protests and organisations. It comprised of Presidency towns as well as provincial towns like Meerut, Lahore, Surat, Patna, Cuttack or Aligarh. Since all their demands remained unfulfilled it convinced the regional leaders of the need of All India Organisation. The process had started in 1851 with British India Association of Calcutta which tried to open branches in two other Presidencies. In 1877 on occasion of Delhi Durbar the Indian journalists who were invited to this extravaganza formed Native Press Association.
Hume with his supra-national identity nevertheless served the role of an ideal mediator which was needed to bring regional leaders together.
Gokhale in 1913 wrote that any attempt by Indians to form all-India Organisation would immediately attract the unfriendly attention of the authorities. “If the founder of Congress had not been an Englishman, the authorities would have at once found some way or the other to suppress the movement.”
BC Pal’s (New India Newspaper) analogy, “if Hume and other English liberals hoped to use Congress as a Safety-Valve, the Congress leaders hoped to use Hume as a lightning conductor.”
Analyse the social composition of the early Congress leadership. [2009, 30m].
Congress from the very beginning suffered from uneven representation and total exclusion of non-elite groups.
The composition of delegates at the first congress reflected the changing patterns of organized political life in India, the western educated professional groups gradually taking the lead over the landed aristocrats.
Geographically Bombay (38/72) dominated, followed by Madras (21/72) and Bengal (4/72).
Mostly professionals (lawyers, journalists, educators, etc), some landlords and businessmen.
Socially predominantly High-Caste Hindus.
This remained for next two decades and would put constrains on its programmes.
Badruddin Tyabji was the sole Muslim politician in early Congress. Its social orthodoxy – 90% Hindus – 40% Brahmins and rest upper-castes prevented Congress from raising social questions.
Representation of commercial classes among its members prevented it from taking a pro-working class position. They were opposed to factory reforms – improve women and child condition, restrict their employment to certain age. They supported labour reform in Assam tea gardens as capitalist interest involved there was of foreign origin. There was the challenge of pro-tenant vs pro-zamindar.
Despite the preponderance of new professionals, British India Association of landowners maintained cordial relationship with the Congress for first few initial years and remained its major source of finance.
Congress held session in different parts of country every year and also that President was to be from other region than where the session was held. Why? To break the regional barriers and misunderstanding. Because its objective was ‘development and consolidation of those sentiments of national unity’.
Describe the nature of Indian Nationalism with special reference to the character of its leadership in the period between 1885 and 1905. [1982, 60m]
<D Naoroji, RC Dutt, SN Banerjee, Gokhale, Lal Bal Pal>
Describe briefly the ideals and programme of the Indian National Congress between 1885 and 1905 and assess official response to it. [1980, 60m]
“Politics remained for the bulk of the Moderates very much a part-time affair. The Congress was not a political party, but an annual three-day show…”
Despite its limited representation, the historical significance of the early congress lay in the fact that by providing an economic critique of colonialism and by linking Indian poverty to it, the moderate politicians had constructed a discursive field within which the subsequent nationalist attack on colonialism could be conceptualised. Elucidated
Congress - estd 1885, early phase - composition, 3 day annual affair, 1898-1909 only 13383 delegates = <1000 pa. Despite limited representation work was significant. Laid f. of national platform, national awakening,
The pressure built by moderates resulted in – Appointment of commission to review Civil Services in 1886. Enactment of Indian Council Act 1892. Wellby Commission 1895 to suggest measure for better management of resources.
Economic critique - Dadbhai Naoroji - analysis, RC Dutt - economic history of India; Drain of Wealth, Decline of Industry, Decline of Handicrafts, Poverty.
Impact - exposed true character of BR; realisation of BR = Colonial => loss of faith in B sense of Justice; Extremism, Demand of concessions, demand for Swaraj put forward.
"The economic theory put forward by Moderates was trying to corrode the moral authority of colonial rule by linking poverty to colonialism, and also perhaps by implication challenged the whole concept of paternalistic imperialism or British benevolence." Analyse
British benevolence = White Man's burden, Br Providential Mission. WMB = EU responsible to uplift natives, guide them from dark; BPM - White man was working at command of God to civilize natives. Myth shattered by Eco critique.
Critique of Moderates - Failed to see role of masses, too pacifist, relied heavily on constitutional methods of demands and agitations.
"We desire to turn our faces away from the government house and turn them to huts of people. This is the psychology, this is the ethics, this is the spiritual significance of the boycott movement." L Rai.
Comment is in context of change in character of INM under Extremist
What moderates believed; what was found - colonial nature - so turned away faces from government houses = lost faith in British.
The extremist believed in effectiveness of mass movement. No real progress in India without involvement of masses, so they turned faces towards strength of people. The Swadeshi movement was based on this philosophy.
Swadeshi -> boycott -> Swaraj -> Nationalism; Negative effect - difference of ideology => Surat split.
"Moderates emphasised the need for political apprenticeship under the providential guidance of British rule; the extremists rejected the idea of England's providential mission in India as an illusion." Comment critically.
Moderates vs Extremists [belief, approach, found].
“Curzon was an unconscious catalyst who did not understand, let alone desire, what the new century was about to bring forth, but who helped it to be born.” Comment. [1989, 20m]
The political events in the years 1892 to 1905 produced disillusionment among the politically conscious people. The Indian Council Act of 1892 was a complete disappointment for the nationalists. In 1898 a law was passed making it an offence to excite "feelings of disaffection" against the government. Natu brothers were deported without being tried.
"When Curzon entered the scene, the ferment of extremism had already begun to work. His policy only quickened its growth."
By closing years of 19th C Extreme Nationalism had emerged. Why = efforts of moderates; economic hardships faced by Indians - >5 million lost in 1896 Famine; Contemporary International development - Italy defeated by Abyssinia 1896; 1896 Section 124A added in IPC; Leaders like Lal Bal Pal Aurobindo.
In such a scenario Curzon further intensified the situation by bringing out certain measures /Reactionary policies of Lord Curzon –
Calcutta Corporation act 1899 he reduced the number of elected legislatures to deprive Indians from self-governance.
Indian universities act 1904 mainly to increase official control over universities and seen to stop the spread of nationalism among youths.
Official Secrets Act was passed in 1904 to check the freedom of press.
Indians with contempt and insulted and injured their feelings. He described Bengalis as cowards, windbags, impracticable talkers and mere frothy patriots. He even refused to meet to president of INC.
The biggest blunder he committed was the partition of Bengal.
Nationalists vehemently opposed the partition of Bengal. They pointed out administrative efficiency could have been better secured by separating the Hindi-speaking Bihar and Oriya speaking Orissa from the Bengali speaking part of Province. This dissatisfaction gave rise to Swadeshi movement.
Curzon, no doubt, took various positive measures as well, such as - the Punjab Land Alienation Act, Cooperative Credit Society Act, reduction of salt tax, establishment of Imperial Agriculture Department, setting up of Agriculture Research Institute at Pusa, Police reforms etc. But his various steps to curb the rising nationalism and finally his decision to partition Bengal led to widespread discontent. This gave rise to Swadeshi, the first movement where people apart from peasants and rural masses came forward against the colonial government. Thus, Curzon acted as unconscious catalyst in India's Freedom struggle.
“Curzon’s political obtusely created a breach between government and people which was never wholly closed in the remaining forty-two years of British rule.” Comment. [1984, 20m]
“The tragedy of Cruzan lay in that, with such abundance of trained talent; he was denied the crowning qualities. He was never an administrator of the first rank.” Comment. [1991, 20m]
Among all the Governor Generals who came to India during the period of British rule, Curzon was most educated individual. He had great knowledge about India at his time of appointment.
He was an institution builder and initiated a number of reforms and set up commissions.
After the great famine of 1899-90 Curzon appointed Antony-Mcdonell Commission to understand the causes of famine to initiate necessary corrective measures.
CS Moncreef Commission was set by him for the development of irrigation facilities.
Frazer commission was set up by him for Police reforms.
PUSA institute was established to develop new agricultural technology.
A separate province of NWFP was created for administrative effectiveness.
Curzon took deep personal interest in administrative activity but in spite of his trained knowledge and commitment he was bereft of the most fundamental attitude of the great administrator.
Lord Curzon was a true successor of Lord Dalhousie, a great imperialist. He was the greatest imperialist among all the governor generals. He was firm believer in the superiority of white race and European culture
He insulted Indians as and when he got an opportunity. He could never win the trust of Indians. He lacked empathy and failed to appreciate the needs and aspirations of common people. Because of this, the actions and policies of Lord Curzon produced only negative consequences.
He made every possible effort to weaken Indian Nationalism. The time of his governorship (1899-1905), was the formative phase of Indian national movement. Thus, he tried to strangulate Indian nationalism and freedom movement by all fair and foul means.
During his tenure of 7 years, he created a breach between government and the people and this divide was so deep that it could never be bridged in the remaining 42 years.
Nature and direction of Indian freedom movement without Curzon / Impact of Curzon’s reactionary policies –
With Swadeshi, social base of movement got widened to include students and women. Had Curzon not taken such a step (partition) Indian freedom movement might have to wait for another few years for witnessing first mass movement and beginning of modern politics. Also, without such mass movement nationalism would have got limited to educated sections of society as earlier was the case.
The debate over the Swadeshi movement led to split between moderates and extremists. This weakened the vigour and strength of freedom movement for next few years. However, Indian leaders learnt an important lesson from it and future divides were successfully avoided.
Curzon’s reactionary policies stirred the Indian consciousness and provided impetus to the Indian nationalism. Therefore, when leaders like Lokmanya Tilak and Mahatma Gandhi emerged on the scene people readily followed them.
“At the dawn of the twentieth century Lord Curzon, the viceroy of India, was full of hostility towards the Indian National Congress and he confidentially reported to the secretary of state in November 1900: My own belief is that the congress is tottering to its fall, and one of my greatest ambitions while in India is to assist it to a peaceful demise.” Examine. [2013, 25m]
“Curzon’s partition of Bengal gave the unwitting initiative to events of magnitude and returned many years later to port with the cargo of freedom.” Comment. [1997, 20m]
“India after 1905 had new interests and objectives and compelled new lines of policy.” Comment. [1996, 20m]
Bengal was partitioned in 1905 not for administrative reasons but for political purpose. Elucidate.
Bengal was partitioned in 1905 not for administrative reasons but for political purpose. Elucidate.
When and How; >80 million; 54/31 - Bengal vs Non; Hindu vs Muslim. It led to Swadeshi -> anti-Br struggle tx completely.
Create two provinces so that the British colonial interest could be fulfilled.
Partition of Bengal was master stroke of Curzon’s internal policy because he was determined to weaken Indian nationalism and destroy Congress.
Why was province of Bengal partitioned?
Administrative inconvenience – Though the administrative inconvenience was a reality but the manner in which the province of Bengal was partitioned clearly reflected the British imperialistic calculations.
Counter the growing strength of Indian nationalism. Hindu-Muslim unity was the main source of strength of Indian nationalism.
Economic interest of European tea planters in Assam – also influenced the partition of Bengal. These tea planters wanted the East Bengal and Assam merged so that a full-fledged province formed could form. This would pave way for a better taxation and trade policy. Chatgaon as a port was expected to reduce their transportation cost significantly.
Consequences:
The idea was to weaken Indian nationalism but it happened beyond the imagination of British. Instead the partition infused new energy in anti-British struggle.
The Indians launched Swadeshi movement to oppose the partition of Bengal. This changed the character of anti-British struggle completely.
The anti-partition movement pushed the extremist to the forefront of national struggle.
When partition of Bengal was annulled in 1911, the Indian nationalists gained great confidence because their efforts forced the British to cancel the partition of Bengal.
Explain “Constructive Swadeshi” Characterised by atmashakti (self-reliance), which propelled the Swadeshi Movement in Bengal. [2016]
“The Anti-Partition Agitation (1909) had an economic character in Bengal unlike the Extremist Agitation in Maharashtra which had a religious character.” Examine. 20m
Anti-Partition Agitation which essentially got culminated in Swadeshi Movement had their objective lying in the new concept of ‘Swaraj’ or in terms of Tagore, ‘Atmasakti’. Few historians have pointed that the agitation was economic in character in Bengal but the same objective of swaraj was tried to be achieved with religious fervor in Maharashtra.
The assumption however require analysis of the credible facts and writings of the eminent scholars with the modern research.
It is without any denial that the answer to partition of Bengal was found in Swadeshi. The foreign goods especially cloths and liquors were picketed and local manufacturing were promoted. Swadeshi enterprises like textile mills and handlooms, match and soap factories, and tanneries started coming up everywhere.
However, economy alone could not drive the movement in Bengal. The trend was criticized by political extremists such as Aurobindo Ghosh, B.C.Pal etc. who argued that without independence, real generation of national life was impossible. Hence, apart from economic pressures such boycott of British Goods and development of its indigenous alternatives, there must be violation of unjust laws, and violent agitations.
In Maharashtra, the Swadeshi mood led to the revival of religio-political festivals (such as Ganapati, Shivaji, etc) which was already pioneered by Tilak. However, here also the economic aspects, followed in Bengal, were copied and Maharastrian mill-owners made super profits on the bandwagon of Swadeshi cloths.
Hence, the anti-partition movement be best described as the amalgamation of economic, religious and political needs of the hour, rather than branding it purely as economical (for Bengal) or Religious (for Maharashtra).
Write a critical note on: Significance of the Swadeshi Movement 1905-07 in the freedom struggle. [1981, 20m]
What was Swadeshi movement? Described as best expression of Extremist politics, its initial aim was to secure annulment of partition (even in 1903) which became stronger and broad based (after announcement in 1905) known as Swadeshi Movement.
What was unique about it? It was the first time to mobilise other than the literate section of population – national education movement, labour strikes;
Emphasis on self-reliance, VILLAGE LEVEL ORGANISATION and CONSTRUCTION PROGRAMMES to develop indigenous or Swadeshi alternatives for foreign goods and institutions. It transformed the character of anti-British struggle.
It brought the national struggle onto the streets. SWARAJ was adopted as goal of National movement.
What trends could be observed in it? The various trends visible were moderate trend, constructive Swadeshi, political extremism and revolutionary terrorism.
However, this phase also alienated Muslims and it failed to attract lower caste peasants. Religious revivalism – where Hindu symbols as Bhagvad Gita – was used as source of inspiration – alienated Muslims. It failed to attract lower caste peasants as many of them were Vaisnavites.
What were other shortcomings of Swadeshi phase?
Swadeshi alternatives were often expensive than British goods.
National Schools were not adequate in number.
Lower caste peasants in the east had developed aspirations around this time for social mobility and self-respect, which the Swadeshi movement failed to recognise.
Even in factories nationalists could penetrate only into ranks of white collar ranks.
Failure of mass mobilization - boycott movement failed to affect British imports into India.
Surat Split.
Critically examine the economic and political aspects of Swadeshi movement.
Economic aspects - promotion of indigenous industry - PC Ray, TISCO; Burning of foreign goods, charkha, national education.
Political aspects - Swaraj, National awakening, mass agitation, peaceful court arrest.
"Indian nationalism that confronted British imperialism in the 19th Century, and celebrated its victory in the formation of the Indian nation-state in 1947, was a product of colonial modernity". Comment critically. [PJ Marshal]
Comment is in the context of birth of Indian nationalism. The colonial historians emphasised that emergence of IN due to reforms introduced by British and the British rule was responsible for birth of IN.
+ve role of BR - Grounds for modern Indian nations - Political unification; Modern Civil Administration, Judicial system; Railways, Press, Western Education.
Critical Examination - Reforms - but none aimed at Indian progress. Unification to create Br colonial empire. Admin and Judiciary to rule over India effectively. Growth of India was unintended outcome and for that Br cannot take credit.
#of other factors - Reformers - socio-religious unity, caste break; Historians - National Literature; Contemporary International development. Nationalism was happening across all over world. [Patriotism = individual love for country; Nationalism = collective consciousness of one family]
If British Rule sought to colonise Indian minds, the Indians also selectively appropriated, internalised and manipulated that colonial knowledge to mount their own resistance to colonial hegemony.
Comment is made in the context of spread of ideas in British Rule and awakening of these towards rise of nationalism and therefore, national movement in India.
British rule = white man's burden; British providential Mission
Colonise minds = western colonial ideas/ mindset.
How were they propagated = western education, Press, Reforms.
What were the ideas = rationalism, liberty, scientific thinking.
Absorption of ideas => Awakening of Nationalism => N movement.
Trace the factors which led to a split in the Indian national Congress in 1907. What was its impact on the course of the nationalist movement? [2003, 60m]
There was much public debate and disagreement between the moderate and the extremist nationalists. The latter wanted to extend the Swadeshi and Boycott movements from Bengal to the rest of the country and to extend the Boycott to every form of associations with the colonial government. The moderates wanted to confine the Boycott Movement in Bengal and even there to limit it to the boycott of foreign goods.
There was a tussle between the two groups for the presidentship of the National Congress for that year (1906). In the end Dadabhai Naoroji, respected by all nationalists as a great patriot, was chosen as a compromise. Dadabhai electrified the nationalist ranks by openly declaring in his presidential address that the goal of the Indian national movement was "Self-government" or Swaraj like that of the United Kingdom or the colonies".
But the differences dividing the two wings of the nationalist movement could not be kept in check for long. Many of the moderate nationalists did not keep pace with events. The other hand was not willing to be held back. The split between the two came at the Surat Session of the National Congress in December 1907. The moderate leaders having captured the machinery of the congress excluded the militant elements from it.
But in long run the split did not prove useful to either party. The moderate leaders lost touch with younger generation of nationalists. The British Government played the game of 'Divide and Rule'. While suppressing the militant nationalists, it tried to win over moderate nationalists' opinion so that the militant nationalist could be isolated and suppressed.
Then came 1909 reforms with separate electorates. Lesson for Indians.
The nationalists soon saw that disunity in their ranks was injuring their cause and that they must put up a united front before the government. The growing nationalist feelings in the country and the urge for national unity produced two historic developments at the Lucknow Session of Indian National Congress in 1916. Firstly the two wings of Congress were reunited (since 1907 split). Secondly the unity of congress and Muslim league. They forgot their differences and put up common political demands before the government.
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