Syllabus:
Mughal Empire, First phase: Babur and Humayun; Akbar - Evolution of religious and social outlook - Theory of Sulh-i-kul and religious policy; Administration; Rajput policy; Land Revenue; Industry and Commerce; Conquests and consolidation of the Empire; Historiography - Persian histories
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Bābur, (Persian: “Tiger”) also spelled Bābar or Bāber, original name Ẓahīr al-Dīn Muḥammad, (born February 15, 1483, principality of Fergana [now in Uzbekistan]—died December 26, 1530, Agra [India]), emperor (1526–30) and founder of the Mughal dynasty of northern India.
Write a short essay on: “Babarnama as a source of history.” [2002, 20m]
The Babarnama, written by Babur, is often considered as one of the most authoritative memoir written in the sixteenth century which not only describes the political and physical landscape of India but also the socio-economic and religious live of its countrymen.
Written in the mother tongue of Babur i.e. Chaghatai Turki was translated to Persian during Akbar’s regime and later into many European languages. Though the manuscripts obtained are not complete and much have been lost, a substantial portion of it has been devoted to his experience with Hindustan.
Babur specifically mentions the situation of contemporary state and its citizen. While describing its landscape, he curiously mentions the Hindu Kush and Shivaliks and expresses his lack of knowledge about the hill men of India.
Similarly, he identifies the socio-cultural conditions prevailing over the period and probably did not notice much difference in the life style of Muslims and Non-Muslims. However, he is critical about the towns, and socio-cultural life. He complains of having no social intercourse, paying and receiving visits, and lack of manners. However, it notes without hesitation that India is a country of gold and silver.
Babarnama though might not be justified in each and every aspect of the prevailing life and culture as Babur could not spend much time here, it certainly helps the contemporary and modern historians to construct the history of sixteenth century with much ease and accurateness
His recollections are broadly divided into three parts. The last part gives a detailed account of India. A2 an estimate Babumama is “One of those priceless records which are for all times; It is fit to rank with the confessions of St. Augustine and Rousseau and the memoirs of Gibbon and Newton. In Asia it stands alone.”
Comment on the Turko-Mongol theory of sovereignty. To what extent was it adopted by Babur and Humayun? [2010, 30m]
Components of Turko-Mongol ToS: Absolute authority of crown ('one sun in sky'-CHENGEZ KHAN),
Dynastic succession basis ability - no fixed law like primogeniture (elder son),
Subjugation of nobility - complete loyalty expected;
Governor not a partner only administration - transferred and appointed as per will of ruler; Deposit of revenue to centre.
Turah - code of conduct (by CHENGEZ) followed by Mongols and Mughals;
Imperialism, Secularism; Complete devotion of emperor to task.
Write a short essay on: “The empire-builder in North India of the sixteenth century.” [1989, 20m]
How does Tuzuk-i-Babri testify that Babar had been a cultures man? [2015, 10m]
"No bondage equals that of sovereignty; retirement matches not with rule." In light of this statement discuss Babur's view on kingship.
Comment made by Babur when he explained duties of crown and responsibility to Humayun. Babur was worried about fact that Humayun may not stand up to the task of a sovereign because he was of easy going lifestyle.
Babur was not only a great conqueror but an efficient administrator as well. He was aware of duty and responsibility of sovereign. He believed that the work of an emperor was full time affair. It demands complete devotion and without it the affairs of state can't be managed successfully. The sovereign faces multiple challenges - inner as well as other entities. Therefore, sovereignty cannot be mixed with pleasure and comfortable life.
Early years of Babur of struggle, without parents, he knew value of empire, troubles a person has to face. He emphasised rulers virtues; During Battle of Khanua he gave up wine. Ruler must be guided by higher objectives rather than physical desires.
KHANDWA:
Provide a comparative analysis of the development of Arabic and Persian historiography. [2010, 20m]
Write a short essay on: “Mughal official histories and auto-biographical works.” [1992, 20m]
Gulbadan Begum was a daughter of Babur and half-sister of Humayun. She was highly educated and cultured. From 1557 to 1603 she stayed with Akbar at Agra and recorded her reminiscences in the form of a book entitled Humayun-nama on the request of Akbar. She records a brief account of her father Babur and a detailed account of her brother Humayun.
Khwaja Nizammuddin Ahmad supported Humayun’s claim to the throne, and was an official of Akbar at Agra in 1568. He wrote his well-known historical work Tabaqat-i-Akbari in the reign of Akbar. It was completed in 1593. It is a history in nine parts from the first appearance of Islam in India up to the date of its composition in 1593-94. Tabaqat-i-Akbari is a very important source for the history of the Saiyid and Lodi Sultans. Nizammuddin Ahmad has not included in his work those absurd and marvellous stories about the Afghan rulers which are found in abundance in the Waqi-at-i-Mushtaqi and other works on the Lodi and Sur rulers.
Abul Fazi, a court historian of Akbar. He was introduced to Akbar towards the close of 1574 and was enlisted as a mansabdar. In 1589, at the instance of Akbar, Abul Fazi started the writing of Akbar-nama:
The first volume dealt with Akbar’s ancestors - house of Timur down to the death of Humayun.
The second volume recorded the events of Akbar’s reign - 1556 to 1601.
The third volume is the Ain-i-Akbari.
Ain-i-Akbari deals with Akbar’s administration, household, army, the revenues and geography of his empire. It also provides rich details about the traditions and culture of the people living in India. The most interesting aspect about the Ain-i Akbari is its rich statistical details about things as diverse as crops, yields, prices, wages and revenues.
Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri are the memoirs of Jahangir himself.
Abdul Hamid Lahori, the most reputed historian of the reign of Shah Jahan, wrote the *detailed account of the reign of Shah Jahan in two volumes under the title of Padshahnama.
Muhammad Saki Mustaid Khan was in the service of Aurangazeb for forty years. He was an eyewitness to many of the events record by him. Ma’asir-i-Alamgiri was written after Aurangazeb’s death, but it is based on state papers. It is comparatively very brief as it deals with the history of fifty-one years in only 541 pages.
Muhammad Qazim was appointed munshi by Aurangazeb in the first year of his reign and was later on commissioned by the emperor to complete the annals of his reign. After the eleventh year, upto which point Muhammad Qazim recorded his history, Aurangazeb forbade its continuation. On the manuscript being shown to Aurangazeb, he withdrew his permission for the preparation of his official history. Alamgirnama is a good detailed history of the first ten years of Aurangazeb’s reign from 1658 to 1668.
What were the major features of the administrative system of the Mughal State? To what extent did other Indian powers model their administration on this system in the late medieval period? [1991, 60m]
Compare the Peshwas’ bureaucratic management with that of the Imperial Mughal administration. [2015, 10m]
Critically examine the salient features of administrative system of the Mughal Empire.
SECULAR, PROGRESSIVE, INSTITUTIONAL IN CHARACTER.
MONARHICAL (supreme sovereign), PAPER STATE, BUREAUCRATIC IN NATURE.
IMPERIAL MUGHAL ADMINISTRATION | MARATHA ADMINISTRATION |
Mughal State was a combination of Indian and foreign elements. To be more accurate it was a "Perso-Arabic" system in an Indian setting. | It consisted of Swarajya and Mughalai. Swarajya referred to the areas of Maratha system of administration while the Mughlai fell outside it and was subjected to Maratha and other external raids from time to time. |
CENTRAL Admin: Centralised despotism = emperor enjoying absolute unlimited power (army, civil, Justice). C o Ministers to discuss administrative, political and military policies. Wazir or Diwan - PM who sometimes headed the revenue department, assisted by two junior officers - Diwan-i-am (incharge of salaries) and Diwan-i-khas (incharge of crown lands). Mir Bakshi - chief military advisor. Khan-i-saman - head department of manufactures, stores. Muhtasib - appointed to inspect public morals. Sadr-us Sadr - guardian of Islamic law and spokesman of ulema. | CENTRAL Admin: King was head with all powers. ASTAPRADHAN System /A council of 8 ministers assisted the King: Pantapradhan or Peshwa or PM - general administration. Amatya or Majumdar or FM - managing accounts. Mantri or HM. Sachiv or Secretary, preparing royal edicts. Sumant or Dabir or Foreign M Nyayadhish - or Chief Justice - civil as well as military. Senapati - Commander in Chief - managing Army. Panditrao - High Priest, managing religious matters. |
Provincial Administration - Akbar divided into 12 subas which rose to 15 (Deccan conquest). Suba governed by Subedar (civil as well as military power) and assisted by diwan, bakshi, fauzdar, kotwal, amil, qanungo, patwari. Subas divided into Sarkars or districts and Sarkars were sub-divided into parganas. Head of Sarkar = fauzdar - maintain law and order. | Provincial Admin: Kingdom divided into 4 provinces each placed under provincial governor and assisted by provincial CoM. |
LOCAL Admin: Parganas = union of several villages. Officials of Village = shiqdar, amil, potdar. MUGHAL state was a bureaucratised state which ran according to the detailed rules and regulation. Evidence as Dastur-ul-amal (Rules book) | LOCAL Admin: Provinces divided into PRANTS subdivided into PARGANAS and TARAFS. Village run by PATEL. Over a group of villages there were officers known as DESHMUKHS, DESHPANDES. |
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The Ashta Pradhan is somewhat similar to the court arrangements of other famous emperors such as the Navaratnas of the courts of both Vikramaditya and Akbar, as also of the Astadiggajas of Krishna Deva Raya's court.
Lakshman Sen the ruler of the Sena Empire had Pancharatnas (meaning 5 gems) in his court; one of whom is believed to be Jayadeva, the famous Sanskrit poet and author of Gita Govinda.
The Ashta Pradhan can be construed as an initiative to develop a second line of leadership in the state akin to the Khalsa by Guru Gobind Singh. Guru Gobind Singh and Shivaji were fighting against the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb.
Discuss the different types of Karkhanas in Mughal India. How was the production organized in the different Karkhanas? [2010, 30m]
Analyse the Mughal monetary system and examine their policy of minting of coins. [2014, 20m]
Discuss the patterns of land revenue system developed in Medieval India and examine their significant features. [1980, 60m]
Review briefly the methods of land-revenue assessment adopted by the Mughals. [1983, 60m]
Analyses the distinguishing features of the land revenue system under the Mughals and point out its influence on the strength of the Mughal State. [1989, 60m]
Discuss the striking features of Akbar's LRS.
Scientific, Rational, Progressive, Emergency Features, Balance between needs of state and aspirations of people.
Quite successful - positive impact, peace and stability; Standardized by new measurement standard - 'Gaj-i-illahi'.
Land Revenue System during Mughals:
The land revenue system of Akbar was called Zabti or Bandobast system.
It was further improved by Raja Todar Mal. It was known as Dahsala System which was completed in 1580. By this system, Todar Mal introduced a uniform system of land measurement.
The revenue was fixed on the average yield of land assessed on the basis of past ten years.
It was deployed to alleviate the problems arising due to fixing prices every year and doing settlements of revenues of previous years.
Under the Zabti system, LR was assessed and required to be paid in cash.
The area under Zabti, that is, where the system of measurement was followed, expanded, according to official Mughal statistics.
The death of Humayun marked the end of one phase and the beginning of another one in Mughal history. Explain.
End of one phase - phase of uncertainty, rapid rise and fall. Babur established - ruled for years, died suddenly due to diseases.
Humayun (short phase) to Akbar - 49 years, visionary, Real beginning of Rajput policy, religious policy, Imperialism, Cultural development, institutional development => 100 years after Akbar's death or 150 years since his rule. Continued by J, S, A.
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AKBAR's PILLARS:
1 Pillar - | alliances w/ rajput (marriage w/ rajputs = indigenisation) |
2 Pillar - | balance bw regional (indigenous) and foreign elements (reduces Turkish influence, PM post abolished) or Absorption of Enemy. |
3 Pillar - | system of hierarchical military elites (Mansabs and Jagirs) |
4 Pillar - | abolition of jizya (made clergy unhappy) |
5 Pillar - | New Faith; Darshana (Muslim nobility unhappy) or cult of emperor |
6 Pillar - | School of miniature painting (Rajput + Persian element) |
7 Pillar - | strings of forts and fortresses |
India politically united once again.
Discuss the essential elements of Akbar's concept of suzerainty.
ROYAL ABSOLUTISM
DIVINE ORIGIN OF MONARCHY
COMPLETE SUBJUGATION OF NOBILITY
ZILL-I-ILLAHI
CENTRALIZATION OF ADMINISTRATION
SECULARISM
SULH-I-KUL
FARRE IZADI (DIVINE LIGHT)
IMPERIALISM
Highlight the catholicity of Akbar’s regime with suitable examples. [1997, 60m]
Navratnas in Akbar’s court: Nine courtiers were: Birbal, Faizi, Todar Mal, Man Singh I, Abdul Rahim Khan-I-Khana, Fakir Aziao-Din, Tansen, Mulla Do-Piyaza, Abu'l-Fazl ibn Mubarak.
Poet Abdul Rahim Khan-I-Khana, one of the nine gems of Akbar’s court.
“Rahiman paani raakhiye, Bin paani sab soon. Paani gaye na ubere Moti, Manus, choon…”
[Says Rahim, keep water, as without water there is nothing. Without water pearl, swan and dough cannot exist.]
Jagir and Mansab systems
Critically examine the features of Mansabdari system developed by Mughal rulers. To what extent did it help in strengthening Mughal state?
CENTRALISED, LAW OF ESCHEAT, EMERGENCY, MASHRUT, INTEGRATIVE (civil as well as military), SECULAR.
DECIMAL, PROGRESSIVE, INSPECTION OF TROOPS, NAQDI AND JAGIR PAYMENTS, HIERARCHICAL - 10 TO 10000.
INITIALLY highly successful - institutionalized character, get help easily, MANSABDAR vs SUBEDAR, attract best talent easily. Later on became cause of weakness.
Bring out the main features of the Mansab and Jagir systems with special reference to the reign of Akbar. [1987, 60m]
Write a short essay on: “Mansabdari System” [2002, 20m]
The word mansab means a place or position.
Rank and salary were determined by a numerical value called zat.
The higher the zat, the more prestigious was the noble’s position in court and the larger his salary.
The mansabdar’s military responsibilities required him to maintain a specified number of sawar or cavalrymen.
The mansabdar brought his cavalrymen for review, got them registered, their horses branded and then received money to pay them as salary.
Analyse the merits and demerits of the Mansabdari System. How did it work under Akbar’s successors? [1993, 60m]
Examine the Mansab and Jagir system by Akbar and its subsequent failure in the 18th century. [2011, 30m]
Jahangir introduced a new provision in the Sawar rank - it was termed du-aspa sih-aspa in case of select mansabdars. The mansabdar was to maintain double number of Sawars for the du-aspa sih-aspa category and was paid for it. By this provision he could increase the military strength of his nobles without effecting any change in their Zat rank.
Shahjahan introduced the month-scale in the, mansabdari system to compensate the gap between Jama (estimated income) and hasil (actual realisation). The mansabdar’s salary was fixed by a method called month-scale.
Aurangzeb continued with all these changes and created an additional rank called Mashrut (conditional). This was an attempt to increase the sawar rank of the mansabdar temporarily.
How was lqta system of the Sultans different from the Jagir system under the Mughals? [2014, 15m]
Under Jagir System – Sometimes Mansabdars they were paid in cash (naqdi) but mostly they were paid in form of jagir or landed estate, the estimated revenue income (jama) of which would cover his personal salary and the maintenance allowance for his soldiers and horses.
There were two types of Jagirs: Transferable or tankha jagir and non-transferable or Vatan jagir.
Unlike muqtis, most mansabdars did not actually reside in or administer their jagirs.
Akbar - religious policy - theory of Sulh-i-kul
Trace the evolution of the religious views of Akbar. Write a note on his policy of Sulh-i kul. [2002, 60m]
Write a short Essay on: “Implications of Akbar’s notion of Sulh-i-kul.” [2009, 20m]
Write a short essay on: “Religious tolerance of Akbar.” [2006, 20m]
Throw light on Akbar's notion of Sulh-i-Kul. How did it influence Mughal state?
Universal Peace/Tolerance, characterised by liberalism, secular approach based on humanism.
Curious outlook of Akbar, Close association since childhood with Rajputs, role of Parents, Teachers, Needs of ME.
Inspired for reform - abolish slavery, child marriage, Sati; grants to H as well as M; Rajput policies, Art and Arch, Portrait painting commenced
Analyze the religious policy of the Mughal emperors from Akbar to Aurangzeb. How did it affect the stability of the Mughal Empire? [1985, 60m]
Was Din-i-Ilahi ‘a monument of Akbar’s folly’? [2004, 20m]
What motivated Akbar to enunciate Din-i-Ilahi? How far did he succeed in spreading it? [1983, 20m]
Din-i-Ilahi (“Divine Faith”) was a syncretic faith propounded by the Akbar in 1582 AD, intending to merge the best elements of various religions. This faith had many ethical principles like kindness, prohibiting lust etc.
Din-i-Ilahi functioned as a personality cult contrived by Akbar around his own person. Members of the religion were handpicked by Akbar according to their devotion to him.
Historian Dr. Smith writes about Din-i-Ilahi: “The whole scheme was the outcome of ridiculous vanity, monstrous growth of unrestrained autocracy. The Divine Faith (Din-i-Ilahi) was a monument of Akbar’s folly, not of his wisdom.” He further calls it a silly invention.
Contemporary historian Badayuni regards the founding of Din-i-Ilahi as an un-Islamic act and Akbar was dubbed as heretic.
The Jesuit missionary charged Akbar of hypocrisy for founding Din-i-Ilahi.
Many historian says that Akbar had a certain political motive to create a group who will always favour him.
But Din-i-Ilahi was not Akbar’s folly
Many a historian failed to understand the true significance of Din-i-Ilahi. They relied on the evidence of Badayuni, a hostile critic of Akbar and an orthodox Muslim, with whom the omission of a single ceremony of Islam amounted to apostasy and on the writings of Jesuits who must have been displeased with the Emperor for their failure to convert Akbar to their faith.
Akbar had not founded Din-i-Ilahi to satisfy his vanity (घमंड) or to play the role of the prophet and pope. If he had been guided by those motives, he would have employed the whole state machinery for propagating his faith. The very fact that his close associates like Bhagwan Das and Man Singh did not join the fold of Din-i-Illahi and continued to enjoy the old favors is a clear proof.
Akbar did neither exhibit himself as the religious precept nor did he make any book for followers of this religion. According to R.S. Sharma: “To allot Din-i-Ilahi the place of a religion will be certainly an exaggeration. It will be only proper to call it a sect or a creed because Din-i-Ilahi was not a new religion out of Islam and nor any effort to separate it from Islam was ever made.”
Akbar’s motive in organizing The Din-i-Ilahi as the new order was outcome of political necessity, not religious. Just as the Emperor had conquered the whole of Indo-Pakistan he also wanted to put the chief principles of various religions together and create a new social order to build a common nation. Akbar’s foremost aim was the union of Hindustan under one head which was difficult to achieve had he persecuted non-Islamic religions. Din-i-Ilahi contained was an admixture of different religions and it was supposed to bridge the differences between religions.
According to RS. Sharma, far from being a monument of Akbar’s folly, Din-i-Ilahi was the crowning expression of Akbar’s national idealism.
Hence, Din-i-Ilahi was not the monument of Akbar’s folly, it was a monument of his wisdom. As a political institution the Din-i-Ilahi entirely fulfilled Akbar’s hopes and expectations. As long as he was alive, he enjoyed loyalty of his subjects, differences between religions were not large and Mughal Empire remained vast and consolidated.
Rajput policy
“Akbar built the Mughal Empire by enlisting the support Rajputs.” Do you agree? [2003, 60m]
Akbar built the Mughal Empire by enlisting the support of the Rajputs; Aurangzeb destroyed it by alienating the Rajputs.” Discuss critically. [2007, 60m]
Describe the Rajput policy of the Mughal emperors. Do you agree with the view that the reversal of Akbar’s Rajput policy by Aurangzeb was responsible for the disintegration of the Mughal Empire? [2000, 60m]
In what ways were Aurangzeb’s Rajput and religious policies different from those of his predecessors? What were the consequences of the changes made by him? [2004, 60m]
The policy of seeking a special relationship with the Rajputs that matured under Akbar was one of the most abiding features of Mughal rule in India. Explain
Intro - Rajputs place of great significance for ME - great pillar of support. Mughal-Rajput relations consciously developed by rulers from Humayun to Aurangzeb.
Rajputs were brave, important class of Indians; mutual respect and equality; secularism, liberalism and flexibility - carrot and stick approach. (Nobility~22%). Raja Bharmal given high ranks.
Before 1572 less importance; after Gujarat Campaign Rajputs were trusted more; closer to Agra.
Analyse how the political processes of state formation of Mewar, from 10th-15th century CE was challenged in the 16th century CE by the imperialist policy of Akbar. [2013, 15]
The state of Mewar (later known as Udaipur) which was founded in sixth century and finally became a princely state in 1949, was ruled by Rajputs for over 1400 years. It political processes is often characterized by its vigorous resistance to forces which compelled them to submit and accept a suzerainty of foreign rulers. However, it was deeply challenged by the imperialist policies of Akbar.
The state of Mewar was ruled by several dynasty during its long history. It took part in the battle of Tarain and though defeated by the Sultanate rulers such as Alauddin Khalji, persisted with overthrowing the foreign Yoke and governed it independently.
However, with the accession of Akbar and his forward imperialist policies, Mewar again came in the line of fire. After winning Gujarat and parts of Rajasthan, it was necessary for Akbar to win over Chittor.
Mewar, as always, did not surrender at the first instance and raised its independence again. However, despite the immense bravery and valiant fights against Mughals, the Rana of Mewar could not win and had to continue the battle from the Jungles. The Chittor fort was captured by the Mughals after much difficulty.
Hence, state formation of Mewar showed extraordinary Rajput pursuit of local independence and was the last ones to submit before the Mughals on almost equal terms.
Write a short essay on: “Rana Pratap’s patriotism was his only offence.” [1999, 20m]
According to Dr. V. A. Smith, “Maharana Pratap’s patriotism was his offence.”
Maharana Pratap, ruler of Mewar, had characteristics of patriotism, courage, valour, self-respect and a strong love for independence. He was never prepared to compromise with the high values.
Akbar had won over most of the Rajput chieftains by his astute policy and could not endure the independent attitude assumed by the Rana who must be broken if he would not bend like his fellows. Even Rana’s younger brother Shakti Singh also deserted him and became a vassal of Akbar. But Rana Pratap had vowed never to barter away centuries’ old freedom of his homeland at any price whatsoever.
Single-handedly for a quarter of century (1572-97), Maharana Pratap withstood the combined efforts of the empire; at one time carrying destruction into the plain, at another, flying from rock to rock and feeding his family. He did not have military power of Mughal but his resistance continued with the offence of his patriotism for his motherland.
Though Chittor was sacked and plundered by Akbar’s forces, the spirit of Rana Pratap was unbroken. He still refused to acknowledge Akbar as the Mughal emperor and vowed never to appear in his court in Delhi.
The Maharana’s patriotism was his only offence (अपराध) and he suffered valiantly for upholding the righteous principle of sovereignty and independence. The Battle of Haldighati was fought for this principle.
It is on June 18, 1576, that Rana Pratap’s small force were pitted against the combined armies of Akbar and the Rajput states who had allied with the Mughals. The patriotic zeal of his generals like Hakim Khan Sur was awe-inspiring; and though Rana Pratap retreated into the hills, he left the Mughal armies trapped in total disarray. No retreat has ever been more glorious, and for the Mughals, no victory was ever more like defeat and all these happened due to patriotic offence of Rana Pratap. The hard earned victory of Mughal could not fulfil its objective of complete subjugation of Mewar. Rana Pratap continued resistance with his patriotic zeal till his death.
Write a short essay on: “Hemu Vikramaditya” [2001, 20m]
Hemu was a Hindu, born into a humble family. He rose to become Chief of the Army and Prime Minister to Adil Shah Suri of the Suri Dynasty. He was the greatest rival of Akbar at the time of death of Humayun.
Hemu was a man of extraordinary personality, and one cannot fail to admire his qualities of leadership and his prompt attempt to banish alien rule from the country. In fact being a real native of the soil his claims to the throne of Delhi were superior to that of the Mughals.
Hemu was bent upon expelling the Mughals from India. On hearing the news of the death of Humayun, Hemu marched towards Delhi and Agra and occupied the same by defeating Tardi Beg Khan, the Mughal governor of Delhi. Hemu assumed the title of Raja Vikramaditya. He thus became the first and the only Hindu to occupy the throne of Delhi during the medieval period.
The Mughals were alarmed at the fall of Delhi and Agra. Some advised Akbar to retire to Kabul but Bairam Khan was in favour of recovering Delhi and Agra and Akbar accepted his advice. By this time Hemu had consolidated his position by winning over many Afghan officials and soldiers and he was preparing himself to meet the Mughal advance. The two armies viz. the army of Hemu and of Akbar met on the historic battle field of Panipat in November, 1556. The Mughals fought valiantly but Hemu seemed to carry the day. However, he was struck by an arrow in the eye and he became unconscious. This caused panic in his army as it began to disperse in confusion. It marked a turning point in the battle. Hemu was put to death and Mughal victory was complete.
Foreign policy
Discuss the factors which shaped the foreign Policy of the Mughals.
SAFETY and SECURITY - emergence of Portuguese, subjugate Rajputana, routes from Agra, reach national frontiers - disturbances be nullified.
COMMERCIAL, ECONOMIC INTEREST - Deccan, Surat.
CULTURAL FACTORS - Deccan respect for Sultan - Akbar also wanted the same.
LINKS with ANCESTRAL KINGDOM - Jahangir, Shah Jahan - Balkh campaign (1645).
CHALLENGES imposed by PERSIANS and UZBEKS - Kandahar, Kabul, Nazr Mhd.
Balkh campaign of Shah Jahan was the high water mark of Mughal Foreign Policy. Discuss.
4 crore rupees, 1000s of soldiers.
Internally - peace and stability; Bijapur campaign was over; Nazr Mohammad challenged by own son - he ran away - Murad's role.
Mismanagement - since at peak of power of ME - could not capture Balkh, later no attempts made; later focus shifted to Deccan.
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