Syllabus:
Major administrative policies of Jahangir, Shahjahan and Aurangzeb
Nature of the Mughal State - Religious Policy; Education and Literature (Hindi and other religious literature and other literature)
Late Seventeenth century crisis and the revolts - The Empire and the Zamindars; Agriculture and Craft Production
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Aurang: a Persian term for a warehouse – a place where goods are collected before being sold. The term also refers to a workshop.
Weaving community: The tanti weavers of Bengal, the julahas or momin weavers of north India, sale and kaikollar and devangs of south India are some of the communities famous for weaving. Weaver’s skills were passed on from one generation to the next.
Rangrez: For coloured textiles, the thread was dyed by the dyer, known as rangrez. For printed cloth the weavers needed the help of specialist block printers known as chhipigars.
‘Qibla’: Shah Jahan’s audience halls were specially constructed to resemble a mosque. The pedestal on which his throne was placed was frequently described as the qibla, the direction faced by Muslims at prayer since everybody faced that direction when court was in session. The idea of the king as a representative of God on earth was suggested by these architectural features.
Dargahs – sufi shrines.
Khanqahs – sufi lodge, often used as a rest house for travellers and a place where people come to discuss spiritual matters, get the blessings of saints, and hear sufi music.
Idgah – an open prayer place of Muslims primarily meant for id prayers.
Khera Sadhan (near Agra) - There are no fights here regarding caste and community – no other community like it in the whole of India (who are both Hindus and Muslims constituted around 11% at one time). It is common to have a family of four brothers with two of them Hindu, two Muslim. During the rule of Aurangzeb (1658-1707), villagers there were asked to either convert to Islam or leave their homes. Faced with such a threat, almost all of them had changed their religion at that time. After Independence, a group of local leaders exhorted the townsfolk to go back to Hinduism. Some did, others didn't. But religion since then hasn't mattered to the people here.
Humayun’s tomb: was commissioned by Humayun’s first wife and chief consort, Empress Bega Begum (also known as Haji Begum), in 1569-70, and designed by Mirak Mirza Ghiyas, a Persian architect chosen by her.
It was the first garden-tomb on the Indian subcontinent, and is located in Nizamuddin East, Delhi, India, close to the Dina-panah Citadel, also known as Purana Qila (Old Fort), that Humayun founded in 1533.
It was also the first structure to use red sandstone at such a scale. The tomb was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1993, and since then has undergone extensive restoration work, which is complete.
Architecture (+ Provincial architecture and painting; Classical music)
Write a short essay on: “The emergence of composite culture during the period 16th to 18th centuries.” [1989, 20m]
Trace the development of art and architecture under the Mughals and point out mingling of Hindu elements in them. [1998, 60m]
Analyse the characteristic features of Mughal Architecture. How did it evolve during Mughal period?
Characteristic features - Indo-Islamic, CONTINUATION of tradition going on from DS period, ASSIMILATION, Focus on STRENGTH, STATE PATRONAGE, Multidimensional, EVOLUTIONARY
Explain the principal features of architecture during Akbar’s rule. What changes were made in them by Shahjahan? [2002, 60m]
Akbar’s reign can be taken as the formative period of Mughal architecture. It represents the finest example of the fusion of Indo-Islamic architecture.
The architecture of the reign of Akbar represents encouragement of the indigenous techniques and a selective use of the experiences of other countries.
The chief elements of the style of architecture that evolved under Akbar’s patronage can be listed thus:
the buildings mainly used red sandstone as the building material;
a widespread use of the trabeated construction;
the arches used mainly in decorative form rather than in structural form;
the dome was of the ‘Lodi’ type, sometimes built hollow but never technically of the true double order;
the shaft of the pillars were multifaceted and the capitals of these pillars invariably took the form of bracket supports; and
The decoration comprised of boldly carved or inlaid patterns complemented by brightly coloured patterns on the interiors.
Write a short essay on: “The zenith of Mughal architecture under Shahjehan” [2001, 20m]
Like Painting reaching climax under Jahangir, the Mughal architecture reached the climax under Shahjahan with changed style and spirit.
Building material and decoration
Use of marble became even more popular under Shahjahan. In fact red sandstone was substituted by white marble and other precious stones as the main building material. Moti mosque and Taj Mahal were built entirely of marbles.
Maximum carvings were attempted and costly colors were used to beautify buildings.
Pietra dura began to be used extensively. It was used on a large scale in the Taj Mahal. (Towards the end of Jahangir’s reign began the practice of putting up buildings entirely of marble and decorating the walls with floral designs made of semiprecious stones called pietra dura. Eg: Itimad-ud-Daula)
Beauty and elegance
Rather than building huge monuments like his predecessors, Shah Jahan built elegant monuments. The delicate elegance and refinement of detail in his architecture is illustrated in the buildings erected in his reign at Agra and Delhi, for example: Taj Mahal at Agra.
Mosque building reached its climax under Shahjahan. Moti Masjid in the Agra fort, built entirely in marble and the Jama Masjid at Delhi, built in red sandstone are imposing buildings, and their position and architecture have been carefully considered so as to produce a pleasing effect and feeling of spacious elegance. High towers and domes are special characteristics of Jama Masjid.
Architecture of Shahjahan is highly symmetrical and balanced in parts.
Taj Mahal
Brought together all the architectural forms developed by the Mughals and regarded as a jewel of the builder’s art. This was built as mausoleum of his beloved queen Mumtaz Mahal.
Construction started in 1632, and the mausoleum was completed in 1648, while the surrounding buildings and garden were finished five years later.
The chief glory of the Taj is the massive double dome and the four slender minarets linking the platform to the main building.
The Humayun’s tomb built at Delhi towards the beginning of Akbar’s reign, and which had a massive double dome of marble, may be considered a precursor of the Taj.
Other architectures under Shahjahan
Shahjahan built the red fort in his new capital in Shahjahanabad in Delhi. Red fort made of red sandstone is famous for its special buildings-diwan-i-aam and diwan-i-khas. Here, Takhat-i-Tahus (Peacock Throne) is a celebrated art, used for sitting in the court by Shah Jahan.
Nahar Bahisht was a canal built to draw Yamuna water in Red Fort.
Shahjahan also built artificial lakes and gardens.
Mughal painting
Identify the traces of Persian and Rajput traditions and show how they were synthesized in the field of painting, architecture and literature at the Mughal court. [1981, 60m]
Write a short Essay on: “Mughal painting” [2005, 20m] [2007, 20m]
Write a short essay on: “Narrative paintings under Jahangir and Akbar.” [1994, 20m]
Mughal paintings mainly consist of book illustrations and the production of individual miniatures.
Mughal painting was essentially a court art; it developed under the patronage of the ruling Mughal emperors and began to decline when the rulers lost interest. How did Mughal painting evolve from Humayun and Shah Jahan? Examine.
Write a short essay on: “During the reign of Jahangir Mughal painting reached its zenith.” [2000, 20m]
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Mughal School of painting: It developed as a synthesis of the Indian style of painting and the Safavid school of Persian painting.
It is marked by naturalism portraying several natural themes even while being secular.
Evolution of Mughal paintings can be traced like this – HUMAYUN – Beginnings – acquired the services of two Persian artists, Mir Sayyid Ali and Abdul Samad. They were the disciples of Bihzad, the master painter who was at the height of his fame at the time. Creation of many illustrated albums. AKBAR – Artists retained Persian influence and exhibited an increasing naturalism and detailed observation of the world around them. Indian influence - roped in services of Indian artists. Imperial establishment or karkhana. Increased importance to illustrated works - commissioning of illustrated works of Akbar Nama, Razm Nama (the Persian name for the Hindu epic the Mahabharata). 3-Dimensional figures and the continued use of fore sighting. JAHANGIR (an artist himself) – refer below SHAH JAHAN – Importance to artificial elements and bringing unnatural stillness (European influence) unlike the naturalistic depictions of the previous period. Change in technique - Shah Jahan eschewed the use of Charcoal and encouraged the use of Pencil for sketches and Gold and Silver for paintings. Aurangzeb - Later period lacked active patronage from rulers like Aurangzeb and the art lost its glory only to give way to regional and western painting forms.
| Humayun laid the foundation and even under Akbar painting was largely confined to the illustration of histories and chronicles. Akbar also commissioned portrait miniatures but its real development / climax happened during Jahangir. The cause of the progress of painting during the reign of Jahangir: The Jahangir-nama, written during his lifetime, which is an autobiographical account of Jahangir’s reign, has several paintings. Jahangir established a gallery of painting in his own garden. He also got completed the works taken up by the artists during the time of Akbar. He patronized many artists at his court. Ustad Mansur was the great name who was titled as Nadir-u-Asar. Other prominent court artists were Abul Hasan, Bishan Das, Aga Raza etc. In his biography, Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri, he claimed to tell the name of the painter after seeing the painting. He himself possessed knowledge of painting. Jahangir had a very discriminating eye which could judge the painting. Special features of Painting during Jahangir: Influence of European painting – Jahangir encouraged his royal atelier to take up the single point perspective favoured by European artists, unlike the flattened multi-layered style used in traditional miniatures. Emergence of album painting – Narrative painting declined and superseded by album painting i.e. paintings of animals, birds, flowers, portraits, made not as illustrations to book but individual work of art to be mounted in an album. Properly catalogued painting – Paintings created under Jahangir’s reign were closely catalogued, dated and even signed, providing fairly accurate ideas as to when and in what context many of the pieces were created. More refined painting – Painting became more refined, smaller in scale, lighter in palette, and more exquisite- intended for connoisseur’s delectation. Brushwork became finer and the colours lighter. Portrait painting – Apart from painting hunting, battle and court scenes, under Jahangir special progress was made in portrait painting. He particularly encouraged paintings depicting events of his own life. Nature painting – Jahangir’s interest in painting also served his interests in nature. The painter Ustad Mansur became one of the best artists to document animals and plants which Jahangir either encountered on his military exhibitions or received from emissaries of other countries. Shortcomings - Though painting reached its climax during Jahangir, it still had shortcomings: Despite very lively studies of animals and birds, the Mughal painters had little interest in the study of nature independently. Lives of common men were not accepted as mediums to depict the painting. The art did not come close to lives of common man and remained limited to emperors and nobles. |
Mughal paintings reflect the contemporary socio-political conditions. Discuss. [2011, 30m]
The paintings were result of hundreds of dedicated hands and mind often borrowed from mix of Hindu and Muslim artisans. Hence, the regional influence may not be denied.
The ‘Darbar’ scene by Abul Hasan during Jahangir’s time is certainly a reflection of the contemporary social structure. The cloths, the surroundings, the interiors and the people illustrated in the paintings are nothing but the reflection of the time. The hunting, chase, war, and similar themes certainly depicts the political situations along with social realities.
Similarly, illustration of major epics such as Ramayana, Mahabharata, Akbar nama, Chingiz nama etc. amply shows the interest of the emperors to understand the society and culture prevailed over the time when the epics were written.
The European effects on Indian paintings also describes the thought perception of the emperor and his artists about the European society.
Population, Society in Medieval India:
Clothes - Babur struck by scanty clothes worn by ordinary people.
Ralph Finch says at Banaras, people go naked save a little cloth bound about their middle.
Da Laet wrote laborers had insufficient clothing to keep warm in winter. However, Finch observed, in winter, men wear quilted gowns of cotton.
Footwear - Nikitin observed people of Deccan go bare-footed.
Moreland the modern author says, he did not find a shoe mentioned anywhere north of Narmada.
Mud houses, cots and bamboo mats and earthern utensils.
Food – rice, millet pulses (khicheri) formed staple food, along with fish in Bengal and coasts, meat in southern peninsula. Chapatis made of wheat in North India. Ghee and oil were much cheaper than foodgrains. Salt and sugar were more expensive.
Income – difficult to determine as money hardly entered into transaction. Village artisans were paid by means of commodities. Size of holding of peasants was greatly unequal.
Write a short essay on: “Estimates of population of Mughal India.” [2009, 20m]
The information on population in Mughal India is not directly available with any survey or report during the time. Even Akbar’s Ain-e-Akbari which contains much statistics in minute details, does not speak about the demographic profile. However, Historians have still tried to deduce methods and to find out aggregately the population during Mughal period using various methods.
One such attempt to ascertain the population was made by British historian Moreland where he has used the statistical figure of measured Area (i.e. arazi) given in Ain-e-Akbari. The arazi represents gross cropped area. Moreland took the arazi of that time and compared the same with the gross cropped area of at the turn of 20th century. He found a certain relationship between the growth in gross cropped area and the population. Comparing these, he finally reached the conclusion of having the total population of 30-40 million during Mughal era.
Another significant but controversial assessment of the population is given by Indian historian Ashok Desai where he has used different kinds of data such as per capita revenue and purchasing power to estimate the population. The data again came from Ain-e-Akbari and was subsequently used to compare with the current days per capita income and purchasing power, and hence extrapolate to determine the population. The estimate thus achieved was equivalent to the Moreland’s statistics on population.
Population estimates have also been tried to be determined using Average rate of population growth during the period 1601 and 1872 when the first census were organized. Though the final population is not much correct as there isn’t any correct estimate of population at 1601, it still provides a reliable dataset.
Mughal period especially Akbar witnessed much progressed in administration and it was actually ordered by Akbar to find the population estimate. However, it could not be organized that time and hence we have to rely on multitude of other methods to extrapolate the population.
[Population – estimate at beginning of 17th C ~125 million. Plenty of cultivable land available.]
Will it be correct to say that the rural economy in Mughal India was relatively self-sufficient? [2015, 10m]
Crops – large variety (wheat, rice, barley, pulses, gram, etc); cash crops (cotton, sugarcane, indigo, oilseeds) paid higher LR.
Peasants not only shifted from one crop to another (basis price) but also willing to adopt new crops. Two new crops, 17 C – Tobacco, Maize. Silk and Tusser cultivation became widespread in Bengal that no need for import from China. Adoption of Potato, Chillies in 18 C.
Exported food grains – rice and sugar to neighbouring countries.
State the structure of medieval village society in Northern India. What were the passive forms of resistance of the peasants in the medieval period? [2012, 30m]
Kamin – landless peasants and labourers often belonged to class of people called untouchables. Famines, frequent, affected them most.
Khudkhast – peasants who owned their land and paid LR at customary rates. Dominated and exploited weaker sections; in turn were exploited by Zamindars.
Muzarian – tenants who borrowed bullocks and ploughs from Khudkhast to cultivate. Generally paid LR at higher rate.
Zamindars – owned lands that he cultivated, in addition, held hereditary right of collecting LR from a number of villages. Formed a very numerous, powerful class ~ across country, Deshmukhs, Patils, Nayak, etc. Compared to nobles their income was limited. They controlled land; had kinship ties with land-owning castes – set social standard, provided capital.
Rajas – dominated larger of smaller tracts and enjoyed varied degrees of internal autonomy.
Medieval Indian society including rural society was highly segmented and hierarchical.
Condition of peasants, Condition of women
Examine the economic condition of the rural agricultural classes and of the urban artisans and traders during the Mughal period. [1979, 60m]
A peasant was not disposed of his land as long as he paid LR. His children inherited his land. State dues were heavy, sometimes ~50% of his produce that he was left with bare minimum. Life was hard but enough to eat.
Pattern of life was fixed partly by seasons and partly by custom and tradition (fairs, pilgrimages, ceremonies) had due place.
In cities, largest section consisted of poor – the artisans, servants, slaves, soldiers, manual workers, etc.
Salary of lowest grade of servant was less than two rupees a month (two rupees could feed a family). Little change in real wages of workers – balanced diet but clothes, sugar expensive.
Middle state was not there as per Bernier. If by ‘middle state’ is meant section whose standard of living was between rich and poor, such sections were large in Mughal India. This included small mansabdar, petty shop-keepers, master craftsmen, and class of professionals – hakims, leading musicians, artists, historians, scholars, qazis, and theologians. This strata did not form a class: interests of different sections being different.
Urban Areas, Medieval Towns
Medieval Indian towns were merely as extension of villages. Comment. [2012, 10m]
Critically evaluate various approaches to study medieval Indian towns. [2010, 20m]
Give your opinion on the urban development in India during the Mughal times. [2005, 60m]
The Mughal state provided incentives and loans (taccavi) to the peasants for expansion and improvement of cultivation.
Indian cultivator was risk taking and accepted change. Indian agriculture was efficient, though no new agricultural techniques were introduced, and played a definite role in growth of manufacturing sector and trade.
Growth of rural grain markets led to the rise of small townships or qasbas. The demand of all types of luxury goods by the nobles led to the expansion of handicraft production and growth of towns.
Agra and Fatehpur Sikri were developed and were said to be larger than London. Delhi was no less than Paris. Burhanpur in west, Patna, Dacca in east grew to become big towns. Not only were administrative centres but developed as centres of trade and commerce.
A TRADE Revolution – Indian mercantile classes, banking, insurance and credit systems
Multanis in NW, Maheswaris, Bohras in Gujarat, Jains, Agarwal formed the Indian mercantile class.
Seth's and Shroff's - Bankers. Took care of external trade. Gujarat Bankers knew even to European Companies.
Hundis respected throughout. RoI ~ 9 to 15%.
Banking houses also provided insurance for long distance trade: Charges varied - distance, type of good, for sea route higher; famous worldwide for honesty; took guarantee of safe delivery of good.
Give a sketch of Indian trade with Europe during the Mughal period. [2013, 10m]
India supplied food stuffs such as sugar, rice, etc. Its most important item of export was textiles - can be gauged by an English agent observation, “From Aden to Achin from head to foot, everyone was covered in Indian textiles”. Only items India needed were certain metals such as tin and copper, war horses and luxury items (ivory). Favourable balance of trade was met by import of gold and silver so much so that Bernier says, ‘gold and silver after circulation over every part of the world, is finally buried in India’.
“India had been for hundreds of years the Lancashire of the Eastern world.” Critically examine this view. [2014, 15m]
Commerce with Europe through Dutch, English and French companies
The Mughals and the Indian rulers were interested in the development of India’s overseas trade. They wanted it as it would have increased their revenue resources. Therefore, in spite of all odds, the Mughal Emperors and the local Indian rulers, in general, welcomed foreign merchants. However, the Mughals and other Indian rulers were weak on the seas. To ensure smooth sailing of the Indian ships it was necessary for them to align with one or the other powerful European power who were masters of the seas.
Write a short essay on: “Mughals and the British East India Company.” [1994, 20m]
English also came for spice trade but the hostility of Dutch forced them to concentrate on India. They set up a factory in 1612 in Surat and later got farman from Jahangir.
They were able to defeat Portuguese. In 1662, they got the island of Bombay to king Charles II of England in dowry from Portuguese.
In 1686, the English declared war against the Mughal Emperor and sacked Hugli. However, they were highly mistaken in assessing the Mughal might. Unlike their counterparts in South India, the Mughals were more than a match to a small trading Company. It resulted in the latter’s humiliation. They had to lose all their possessions in Bengal. Their factories at Surat, Masulipatam and Vishakhapatam were seized and their fort at Bombay was besieged.
Write a short essay on: “The Mughals and the European trading companies.” [1989, 20m]
Dutch established themselves at Masulipatnam obtaining a farman from ruler of Golconda in 1606. They wanted spices from Spice Islands (Java and Sumatra) and they quickly realized that spices could be obtained most easily in exchange for Indian textiles as this was most acceptable in South East Asia and also cheapest to carry.
After English, Dutch followed and soon they too established a factory at Surat. They were exempted from tolls from Burhanpur to Cambay and Ahmedabad by farman of Jahangir. Shah Jahan also issued two farmans granting them permission to trade in Bengal (1635) and at Surat.
French had to face the wrath of the Marathas (Shivaji) as early as 1677. French commander (later Director General of French affairs in India) Martin readily acknowledged the authority of Shivaji and agreed to pay him an amount in lieu of a licence to trade in his dominions. In 1689, the French got the permission to fortify Pondicherry (from Sambhaji). The French also succeeded in getting a farman from Aurangzeb as early as 1667 to open their factory at Surat. In 1688 the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb, ceded Chandranagore village to the French.
Chanda Sahib, (son-in-law of Dost-Ali, Nawab of Carnatic) had to face the wrath of the Marathas which compelled him to seek the French help. Mughal Emperor Muhammad Shah on hearing about the successful French resistance to Marathas, granted M. Dumas the title of Nawab and bestowed upon him a mansabs of 4500-12000. The French involvement in the affairs of the principalities of South India ultimately resulted in Carnatic wars and the defeat of the French.
Examine the factors which were responsible for opening and development of European trade in India during the 16th and 17th centuries. [1981, 60m]
European traders, specially the Dutch, English and later French came to India for purposes of trade. This enterprise was a direct result of the growth of the European economy (rapid expansion of agriculture and manufactures).
Trade and Commerce expanded during 17 C for several reasons:
Political integration of country under Mughal rule.
Establishment of law and order over extensive areas.
Mughal rupee became a standard coin (any trader could bring silver and get minted at royal karkanas).
Which were the major European Powers engaged in trade with India in the medieval period? How did they organise their trade and what were the chief items of trade? [1984, 60m]
With Dutch and English foot set, Portuguese control of sea was broken for ever. Despite their domination of seas, Europeans were never able to oust the Indian traders from the Asian trade. One reason is that Indian traders knew both the domestic and foreign markets better. Another, that Indians were willing to work at a lower profit, of 10 to 15% as against 40-50% of Dutch.
During this period Indian shipping grew from about 50 ships to 112 in less than 50 years – an indication of India’s growing foreign trade and domestic manufactures.
English and Dutch looked for items that could be exported from India to Europe.
Pepper, indigo (best ones from Sarkhej, Gujarat and Bayana, Agra) and Indian textiles called calicoes were ‘prime trade’ items to Europe.
By 1650, English set themselves at Hooghly and Balasore exporting from there raw silk and sugar in addition to textiles.
Salt petre was used in ballast and as gun powder for use by English. Best quality salt petre was found in Bihar. Exports from eastern areas grew rapidly.
Thus, the English and Dutch companies opened up new markets and articles of export for India. India also added a new item of trade, coffee produced in Yemen, and textiles trade with West Asia and East Africa also grew during this period.
All these had important consequences:
The prices of items almost doubled and affected different sections of society.
It probably weakened the old, traditional ties in the villages, and made the nobility more money-minded, greedy and demanding.
European nations searched for alternatives to export of gold and silver. Dutch conquered Java and Sumatra. But the key was India. Both the English and French competed for the conquest of India.
Calling this TRADE REVOLUTION would not be apt - Indian traders had continued due to their past experience and expertise. In fact Mughal and Marathas were not naval power => trade through seas was not controlled by them. It was the Europeans who dominated the seas…
Nobility
Changes in the composition of nobility from Akbar to Aurangzeb. Comment. [1995, 20m]
The Mughal ruling class was composed of Turanis (Central Asian), Persians (Iranis), Afghans, Rajputs, Shaikhzadas (Indian Muslims belonging to certain lineages like Saiyads, Barhas, Kambus) and Khanzadas (descendants of mansabdars already in service).
Under Akbar:
Nearly 70 % of Akbar’s nobility was of foreign origin and dominant section was Persian.
He broad based nobility, following his Sulh-i-Kul policy; but also because he did not want any particular section to be able to take advantage of their privileged position.
He inducted a large number ~22% of the Hindus (particularly Rajputs) into the service.
A very small percentage constituted the accounting class like Khatris and Kayasthas.
Throw light on the emergence of a composite class under Akbar
According to Ain-i-Akbari (for year 1595) Rajputs formed 22%. There were 123 nobles of rank >500 = Iranis (27), Turanis (46), Uzbeks, Afghans (4), Indian Muslims (14) and Hindus (Rajputs 20, Non R 2).
Factors that shaped it: liberal outlook, inclusive approach, to strengthen f. MR in India, checks and balances.
Impact: broad based nobility, rich religious outlook, reforms easily, nobles could not challenge authority.
Under Jahangir:
Afghan also began to be recruited in the nobility (constituted a minor part, as they could not be trusted because previous regime was of Afghans and also they were famous for rebellion)
Indian Muslims also given service but these were also under-represented.
Among the Iranis and Turanis, the Iranis made substantial gains under Jahangir.
Iranis almost monopolised the positions like diwan, mirbakshis, mir saman and also advanced steadily in occupying the post of provincial governors. Hence, Akbar’s policy of looking upon the Iranis as better administrators than the Turanis continued.
The Kachhawshas Rajputs dominated among Rajput nobles. This exclusive representation of Kachhawahas in the service was corrected when Jahangir ascended the throne.
Unlike Akbar, Jahangir did not appoint any of Rajputs as provincial governor after Mansingh’s term as Bengal governor ended in 1607.
Under Shahjahan:
Iranis maintained their position under Shahjahan.
The position of Afghans considerably diminished because of the rebellion by Khan Jahan Lodi.
Shahjahan modified Rajput policy. Jai Singh was appointed governor of Agra and Jaswant Singh as governor of Ajmer. These posts were few compared to Akbar time. However the prestige of the Rajputs remained high.
Marathas began to be recruited in nobility mainly from the time of Shahjahan.
Under Aurangzeb:
During Aurangzeb’s period, as the Mughals penetrated into Deccan, the new class of Deccans started coming into service – Iranis of Deccan states like Ahmednagar & Golconda and Marathas.
Thus the dominance of Persian continued and also the percentage of Hindus increased to 32%. All this despite the fact that Aurangzeb was orthodox Sunni Muslim. Moreover, Jaswant Singh and Jai Singh received high appointment as 7000 zat / 7000 sawar and important postings. Though Aurangzeb had shown restrain in promoting Rajputs
For Jahangir, the state was not only to be a liberal institution but also to be marked by benevolence and justice. Discuss.
Benevolence = any aggrieved person ring 60 bells "ZANZIR-i-IDIL", emperor personally listened to grievances raised.
After sitting on throne he inscribed 12 edicts on Allahabad pillar (of Ashoka, later Samudragupta). Emphasised -
Liberal and progressive outlook to ME. Ease the burden of taxes on people = Tangha (stamp duty) and Mir Bhari (customs duty) were abolished.
Government officers ordered not to open package of merchants without permission or knowledge => not to harass people, not to take possession of property of people.
Forbade manufacturing and sale of wine, other intoxicants throughout ME, use of tobacco banned. Animal slaughter was prohibited on 2 days every week (Sun- Akbar's birthday, Thursday- day of his (J) coronation).
Corporal punishment abolished (cutting of ears, nose). Property of heirs not be confiscated if traceable.
Intermarriage between government officials and matrimonial alliances with people of parganas prohibited - so that they don't force someone.
Personalities
Write a short essay on: “Nurjahan” [1998, 20m]
Nurjahan’s childhood name was Mehru-un-Nisa. She was daughter of a Mughal noble, Mirza Ghias Beg. Jahangir married her in 1611 A.D. and adorned her with title of Nurjahan, meaning ‘Light of the world’.
She had interest and knowledge in administration, politics, economics, and culture.
Influential women in Politics and administration
Her name along with that of Jahangir began to be engraved on coins and the Royal edicts were also issued in her name. Slowly Jahangir entrusted the reins of the government to her. She carried on the government very competently and ably. She was praised for her systematic administration, her own frugal living. She rendered great economy in the expenditure of the Royal palace by her wise management.
Her influence in political spheres was also quite adverse because she began to misuse her powers. In order to increase and maintain her influence and position, she married her daughter Ladli Begum (from her previous marriage with Sher Afghan) with Jahangir’s son, Shahryar. She tried to make Shahryar the successor of Jahangir instead of Prince Khurram (Shah Jahan). She appointed her relatives in high posts. These dirty tactics of favouritism brought difficulties for Jahangir as revolts began to take place and some territories were lost. Kandahar was snatched from Mughal control and Prince Khurram revolted.
Bravery
She was a brave and couragious woman and used to go for hunting with Jahangir.
She had shown courage while handling the revolt of Mahabat Khan. In 1626, the Emperor Jahangir was captured by rebels while on his way to Kashmir. The rebel leader Mahabat Khan had hoped to stage a coup against Jahangir. Nur Jahan surrendered to Mahabat Khan and was placed in captivity with her husband. Mahabat Khan failed to recognise the creativity and intellect of Nur Jahan as she soon was able to organize an escape and raise an army right under his very nose.
Kind heartedness
She had kind heart and performed the marriages of orphaned and destitute girls at her private expense.
Interest in art and architecture
She was an educated woman and had developed taste in music, painting and poetry. She herself composed poetry in Persian and many scholars and artists received patronage.
She was interested in architecture and built the tomb of her father, Itmad-ud-Daulah (Title given to Mirza Ghias Beg) and Tomb in Lahore for herself.
She was a very sagacious and shrewd woman who invented new kind of royal furniture, ornaments and modes of dress.
When Shah Jahan became Mughal Emperor in 1628, Nurjahan was forced into confinement. She died in 1645.
Write a short essay on: “Dara Shikoh” [2006, 20m]
SAMUGARH -
Famous for battle of Samugarh (1658) which was a decisive battle in the struggle for throne during the Mughal War of Succession between the sons of ME Shah Jahan after emperor's serious illness in 1657. The battle was fought between his sons Dara Shukoh (eldest son and heir apparent) and his two younger brothers Aurangzeb and Murad Baksh (3rd and 4th sons of Shah Jahan) resulting in defeat of Dara Shikoh.
Samugarh was renamed as Fatehabad in Agra district.
Do you agree with the view that the advent of the Turks and the Mughals in India heralded many changes in the means of production? Give reasons in support of your answer. [1995, 60m]
Science and technology - Court patronage of art and technology
Write a short essay on: “Sawai jai Singh, the astronomer” [2001, 20m]
Raja Sawai Jai belonged to the Kacchawwa dynasty who entered imperial services as a Mansabdar during the reign of Aurangzab and an eminent position under Muhammad Shah.
His contribution towards the development of astronomy in 18th century is remarkable.
Jai Singh wrote: “Religion disperses like mist, kingdoms are destroyed, but the work of the scientist remains forever.”
He was the founder of five major observatories (called Jantar Mantar) at Delhi, Jaipur, Ujjain, Mathura and Banaras of which the last three are now extinct.
The observatories consisted of geometric devices for measuring time, predicting eclipses, tracking stars’ location, ascertaining the declinations of planets, and determining the celestial altitudes.
A sundial was very precise which can be used to tell the time to an accuracy of few seconds.
As he found the prevalent astronomical tables (Zij) in use at that time defective, he decided to prepare new ones. Therefore he constructed huge instrument in observatory at Delhi. Subsequently, to verify the correctness of his observations, he constructed instruments of the same type in Jaipur, Mathura, Banaras and Ujjain observatories. He produced a set of astronomical tables called Zij-i-Jadid-i- Muhammad Shahi.
He incorporated in his works latest European astronomical knowledge as is evidenced from the Zij which was based on Latin tables.
He was fluent in Persian and Arabic and was acquainted with Zij-i-Ulugh Beg.
Drawbacks in Jai Singh’s astronomy:
A great lacuna was the absence of the use of telescopes till the eighteenth century in India. It made Jai Singh’s observatories outdated because he did not use the telescope for observation. He did send a series of embassies to Portugal, but Portugal itself was out of touch with new developments in astronomy in England and Holland based on observation.
Jai Singh’s observatories were based on the Ptolemic view, repeated by Ulugh Beg, of the world as the centre of the universe, rather on Brahmagupta’s and Copernican view of the sun being the centre.
Assess the development of Science and Technology in the Mughal period. [2013, 20m]
Mughal state role in growth of arms and manufactures - Akbar and Aurangzeb were deeply interested in manufacture of all types of guns.
Indian steel swords were in demand outside India too.
In 1651, Shahjahan initiated programme of building sea-going vessels - 4-5 ships were built each year for voyages to West Asia.
Maharajah Sawai Jai Singh (d.1743) was an astronomer of the first order. He had some Greek works on mathematics (including Euclid) translated into Sanskrit as well as more recent European works on trigonometry, logarithms and Arabic texts on astronomy.
Give an estimate of Akbar as a promoter of technology. [2009, 30m]
Civil Engg - New Capital - techniques of water cooling and natural circulation of air were developed for temp stability; water was made to flow in between walls to ensure that external heat could not enter building.
Gear mechanism was invented - gave boost to water lifting mechanism; integration of gear with Persian whheel enabled the continuous use of animal power in pulling water out of well. Also helped in progress of oil extraction industry and sugar industry.
Screw invented - progress of shipbuilding industry. Prior to that rivets were used, planks would get loose.
Metal plating technology - royal utensils were painted once in every 15 days with Ag to avoid food poisoning.
Fateh ul Siraji - famous mathematician and astronomer - invented solar era in 1584-85. Gaj-i-illahi for measurement of land and Gaj-i- Akbarshahi for cloth measurement.
Faizi, mathematician, translated Lilavati of Bhaskaracharya into Persian.
Light weight cannons (detachable) were invented.
What was the Indian response to European Technology? [2010, 30m]
In Europe, science had grown from the 15th century onwards by setting out a sphere of rationalism away from religion. The inability of science to delink itself from religion or mysticism became an inhibiting factor in India and elsewhere in the Islamic world.
Abul Fazl was aware of the discovery of America by Europeans: he gives the Persian term alam nau for the “New World”. But this knowledge does not appear to have become a normal part of the teaching of geography in India.
Bernier claims to explain Mughal noble Agha Danishmand Khan new discoveries of Harvey and Pecquet concerning circulation of the blood.
These contacts did not, however, spread out, or induce a more systematic study of the western sciences. Indian hakims and vaids did not show any interest in Harvey’s discovery. As Bernier lamented, there were no academies (except madrasas for religious study) where such subjects could be taken up for study. Thus, interest in western science and philosophy was individual, and died with the individual.
Water Pump Technology to pump water out of Thames at London was offered by English to Jahangir - But the idea was pooh-poohed by Sir Thomas Roe, and went no further. On ships water bailed out by the khalasi or labourer. Mining could not go below water-level in mines.
Agriculture Technology - introduction of some new crops, plants and fruits. Fruits of better quality were grown by seed propagation. Mangoes of the best quality were exclusively produced in Goa through grafting by the Portuguese (Alfonso, Our Lady, Joani Perreira, etc).
Good cast-iron could only be produced in large furnaces given high temperature by power-driven bellows (in Europe by 1550) but in India skin-bellows worked by wood or hand continued.
Sometimes Europeans gave pistols in gifts to Indians - available at Burhanpur or sale as early as A.D. 1609. But the Indians did not learn the art of wheel-lock and continued with matchlocks.
Indians in general preferred curved swords, in contrast to the European’s straight double-edged rapiers. The Marathas, however, late in the seventeenth century took a liking to European swords.
The Ganj-i-Sawai, the biggest ship of Aurangzeb, was armed with 80 cannons and 400 muskets. However, the cannons of these ships were useless against European ships because of their often faulty location, the unskilled marksmanship of the Indian gunners, and their poor navigational skills.
Indians knew how to make mirrors of metals (bronze and copper) but not of glass and thus spectacles made of glass lenses. The Europeans gave these things to Indians as gift and Indians depended without manufacturing.
The absence of the use of telescopes (dur-bin) => hostile ships could not be sighted on sea; Jai Singh’s observatories outdated. He send a series of embassies to Portugal, but Portugal itself was out of touch with new developments in astronomy.
Time Reckoning Devices - Europeans’ clocks and watches were often given in gift to Indians (Jahangir was presented a watch by Sir Thomas Roe). House-Clocks were a representation of the new science of physics growing in Europe and depended on cranks, levers and weights. Another reasons for incompatibility of Indian system and failure in acceptance of Western Science.
Conclusion
It has been argued that Indian response to European science and technology was “scrupulously selective in its nature, depending on convenience, utility, exigencies, or other material or pragmatic considerations.” It has also been argued that abundance of skilled labour combined with low subsistence costs inhibited improvement in tools. A finer product could be attained more cheaply by a larger application of labour and manual skill than by adopting a mechanical contrivance. But there were cases where use of more labour or skill the product could not be attained, or invention and improvement would be cheaper than enormous use of muscle power. Refusal to accept printing presses, and draw loom for weaving patterns have been given as examples of this.
Factors for the decline of the Mughal Empire
It would not be right to say that decline of Mughal empires was due to lack of able personalities. Saadat Khan, Murshid Quli Khan, Nizam-ul-Mulk, Sayyid brothers, Sawai Jai Singh are examples. But they were busy in self-aggrandisement. But this need not be considered as personal failures since it was more due to weakness inherent in Mughal system.
In which respects did the policies of Aurangzeb contribute to the disintegration of the Mughal Empire?
Explain with illustrative detail the part played by the following factors in the disintegration of the Mughal Empire: [1981, 60m]
(a) Aurangzeb’s alleged departure from the policies of his predecessors, [1981, 20m]
Aurangzeb committed serious mistake –
Unable to understand the true nature of Maratha movement, Disregarded Jai Singh’s advice to befriend Shivaji and Execution of Sambhaji. Failed to solve the Maratha problem. He gave Mansabs to many Maratha sardars but did not trust them.
Abandoned the treaty of 1636 made during reign of Shah Jahan which had kept at unity Deccani states with Mughal Empire.
Breach of Marwar and Mewar – alienated both, a long drawn-out war and damaged the moral standing of Mughal state.
Rest of Rajputana such as Kota, Bundi, Kisangarh etc continued to remain with Mughals. Composition of Rajputs highest.
Demands of Rajputs related to grant of Mansabs as before and restoration of their homelands. This was accepted within some years of Aurangzeb’s death. Rajputs played little role in subsequent disintegration of empire.
Aurangzeb’s religious policy – orthodox outlook, policy led to destruction of many temples of old buildings, re-imposed Jizya.
Religion was not a point in issue. Jizya was scrapped within some years of Aurangzeb’s death and restrictions on building new temples eased.
(b) Inherent defects of the Mansab and Jagir system. [1981, 20m]
The Mughal state was a “war state”. It was a centralised administrative system whose vitality depended ultimately on its military power. Below emperor was the military aristocracy. In 16th century Akbar had organised this military aristocracy through Mansabdari System.
Examine causes responsible for failure of Mansab-Jagir system in the 18th Century.
No central organization; Ruler dependent; No written rules, convention got modified, very high rent by Shah Jahan, Payment by Jagir less in comparison to Cash.
Diverse group started fighting for own; Deccan's were appointed; Absence of Aurangzeb from capital, weak successors.
(c) Growth of new political forces in the provinces. [1981, 20m]
Analyze the cause of the agrarian crisis of the Mughal Empire and briefly discuss the agrarian aspects of the peasant revolt against the Empire. [1982, 60m]
“The major cause of revolts against the Mughal Empire during the latter half of the 17th century was economic, rather than religious.” Discuss. [2009, 30m]
On the basis of the accounts of Europeans bring out the agrarian crisis of the 17th century CE India. [2013, 20m]
French Historian Bernier was in India during the last years of Shah Jahan’s reign and has given an account of the state of cultivation. According to Bernier, the revenue demand during 17th century had become too high and with oppressive practices of Jagirdars to extract the revenue, many peasants and cultivators fled the Mughal areas and went to nearby territories of neighbouring rajas.
Crisis in Jagirdari System:
Attempts to realize more from the jagirs – led to peasant discontent in some areas; uprisings led by Zamindars in some others; attempts to carve out independent local kingdoms in others.
Nobles were unable to get from their jagirs the income indicated on paper.
Shortage of jagirs was another problem – best and easily manageable were kept in Khalisa by Aurangzeb; Karnataka which yielded lower income found no takers for jagirs.
Zamindars and ME - the nature and significance of relationship between them.
Zamindars - 1st time by Amir Khusrau in 14th C; Even Rajput rajas as Z, Z were elements like Khud, Muqqadam, Chowdhari; Smaller Z = 1 Village, Larger = 1000; intermediary between peasants and ME.
Relationship - interdependent; ME organized Z <> Z survived on mercy of ME; Mutual competition - Authority powerful => Z weak, Z powerful when Authority weak; Collection of revenue => ME f. strong; Revolts and rebellion always: Jat rebellion Mathura.
“Aurangzeb is a much maligned monarch.” Argue the case for and against the proposition. [1994, 60m]
Write a short essay on: “Spanish ulcer ruined Napoleon Bonaparte, the Deccan ulcer ruined Aurangzeb.” [1999, 20m]
“The expansion of Mughal Empire in Deccan brought about its decline.” Discuss. [1988, 60m]
By conquering Deccan, Aurangzeb made the empire so large that it collapsed under its own weight.
The attempt to extend Mughal administration over Golconda, Bijapur and Karnataka, stretched the Mughal administration to a breaking point.
Mughal lines of communication became open to Maratha attacks. Mughal nobles found it impossible to collect their dues from jagirs and sometimes made private pacts with them. This, in turn, raised the prestige of Marathas, led to demoralisation of Nobility, and setback to the imperial prestige.
The impact of Deccani and other wars on Mughal empire and of prolonged absence of Aurangzeb from north was important factor. However, note that Mughal empire was still a powerful and vigorous military machinery. Thirty of forty years after Aurangzeb's death, Marathas still could not face Mughal artillery in field of battle.
Summary of Factors:
While agricultural production increased slowly, the demands and expectations of the ruling classes expanded rapidly.
Mughal administrative system was highly centralized and needed a competent monarch to run it.
Turanis were Sunni and Iranis Shia which gave religious colour to their mutual animosity and jealousy.
Mughal army had become outmoded, on account of neglect of infantry armed with flint guns, and a mobile field artillery.
Neglect of modern science and technology by Mughal ruling classes.
Aurangzeb was both a victim of circumstances and helped to create the circumstances of which he became a victim.
He lacked strategic and visionary thinking. For his policies accentuated the problems ME was already suffering ~ Agrarian crisis, Jagirdari Crisis.
Europeans fought against Mughals during Aurangzeb’s time. But they were defeated. They came back again after upgrading their technology and this time defeated Nawab Siraj-ud-daulah in Battle of Plassey.
2. What was the contribution of the Mughals to the development of education and literature? [1984, 60m] |
5. Write a short Essay on the development of Literature during Mughal Period. [2006, 60m] |
4. Delineate the striking features of agricultural and craft production during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries in India. How did they impact the social fabric of the country? [2008, 60m] |
6. What were the passive forms of resistance of the peasants in the medieval period? [2012, 30m] |
Europeans in Mughal Court:
Ralph Fitch (1583-91). First English merchant to reach Fatehpur Sikri and Agra. Valuable information on the trade and urban centres of the late sixteenth century.
Jhon Hughen von Linschotten (1583). He was a Dutch traveller. His travel diary, The Voyage of Jhon Hughen von Linschotten to the East Indies.
William Hawkins (1608-11). An English ambassador of the British king James I to the court of Jahangir and was the first Englishman to appear in the Mughal court during the reign of Jahangir. Stayed at the imperial court till 1613. Hawkins had come to India to secure the trading rights for the English in India. The account of Hawkins provides much valuable information on the reign of Jahangir.
Sir Thomas Roe (1615-19). The leader of the second English embassy to the court of Jahangir. Sir Thomas Roe and his Chaplain Terry stayed in India for about three years and followed Jahangir during his tour to Mandu and Ahmedabad. His travel account, A Voyage to East India, is a very useful source of information.
Petro Della Valle (1623-26). Italian traveller who reached Surat in 1623 and extensively travelled the coastal regions of India. He was one of the most objectives and unbiased European travellers to India, who testifies to religious tolerance, the custom of sati etc, in a most objective manner.
Pater Mundey (1630-34). Italian traveller to the Mughal Empire in the reign of Shah Jahan. Very interesting and valuable information on the conditions of the common people in Mughal India.
Jean Baptiste Tavernier (1638-63). He was a Frenchman who made six voyages to India between 1638 and 1663. His travel account, entitled Travel in India, first appeared in 1676. His account covers the reigns of Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb. We specially owe to him information on the oceanic and trunk routes, coins, weights, export, trade, the method of transport, etc. Tavernier being a dealer in diamonds, his detailed description of the diamond trade and mines in unique.
Francois Bernier (1656-1717). He was a Frenchman and physician by profession. He was attached to the court of Shah Jahan and was witness to the war of succession between Dara Shikoh and Aurangzeb. His History of the Late Rebellion in the States of the Great Mughal, describing the wars of succession, was published in 1670. After the battle of Samugarh, he successively joined the service of Mirza Raja Jai Singh of Amber, the Portuguese at Goa and Sultan Abul Hassam Qutb Shah of Golcunda. He later moved to Madras, where he died in 1717. His book, Travel in the Mughal Empire, is one of the most valuable sources of the history of the Mughal empire.
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