AH - East, West, Deccan

Early State and Society in Kharavela, Satavahanas, Art and architecture. 

Buddhist centres;  

5. Explain the social aspects of Buddhism and account for its decline in India. [2004, 60m]

 

Administration, economy, land grants, coinage, trade guilds and urban centres;  

 

Polity of Rashtrakutas, Palas, Gurjara Pratihara 

3. How far is it true to say that the strength and vigour of Indian history during c. A.D. 500-750 lay in the south of the Vindhyas? [1995, 60m]

5. Did the triangular conflict between the Rashtrakutas, Gujara Pratiharas and Palas create a political vacuum in northern India which facilitated the invasions of Mahmud of Ghazni? [2001, 60m]

2. “Achieving dominance in the south of the Vindhyas did not satisfy the ambitions of the Rashtrakutas, they also wanted to achieve dominance over the Gangetic PIains.” Elaborate and comment. [1997, 60m]

  

Kadambas, Senas, Paramaras 

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Discuss the military activities of Kharavela of Kalinga. Do you think that his reign is significant for military expeditions alone? [1993, 60m] 

Aira Maharaja Mahameghavahana Kharavela was one of the greatest kings of ancient India. The information about this first great historical monarch of ancient Kalinga is known from the Hatigumpha inscription. 

Military Activities of Kharavela: 

Before the time of Kharavela, under the earlier Mahameghavana kings, the army of Kalinga was strong and big. Kharavela after strengthening his capital, enlarged that army. 

1. 2nd year of his reign, a military invasion of South <=> Kharavela, without caring for the power of King Satakarni sent his large army westward. It consisted of horses, elephants, infantry and chariots. The army struck terror to the city of Asika and marched victoriously as far as river Krishna => Kharavela was powerful enough to challenge the Satvahanas supremacy in the Deccan. (repeated this in 4th year successfully). 11th regnal year, Kharavela achieved a great military victory in the south. 

2. 8th year = military campaigns in the north => ancient city of Rajgriha brought under control. At that very time, the Indo-Greek invaders under their king were advancing towards Magadha. Hearing of Kharavela’s advance towards Pataliputra, in fear and panic, Yavana king quickly retreated towards his stronghold at Mathura. Magadha was thus saved from foreign invasion because of Kharavela’s military power. Kharavela thereafter followed the Yavana till Mathura and attacked them. They were defeated and driven out of Mathura by the forces of Kalinga emperor. 

3. 12th year of his reign, Kharavela took up his 3rd invasion of the North. He forced the ruling king of Magadha Brihaspatimatra, to surrender. After his great victory Kharavela brought back from there the image of Kalinga Jina with its throne and endowment that had been taken away by Nanda King. He also brought back the jewels plundered by Nanda king from the Kalinga royal palace along with the treasuries of Anga and Magadha. 

4. 
   

MORE THAN MILITARY EXPEDITIONS: 

1. As the king of Kalinga, Kharavela immediately turned his attention to the fortification of his capital city of Kalinganagari. The capital which was earlier damaged by a severe storm required repair and reconstruction. Kharavela, thus, in the very first year after coronation, repaired the gates, ramparts and structure of the fort. The king pleased his subjects by his works of public welfare. 

2. The king himself was very versed in the ‘Gandharva Veda’ or the arts and sciences of music. That speaks of Kharavela as a patron of India’s ancient musical tradition. In order to please the population of his capital he arranged festivals and feasts on a large scale. He made Kalinganagari, as if, a city of pleasurable play. 

3. 6th year of Kharavela’s rule saw his great charitable activities for the satisfaction of his subjects. He remitted all taxes and cess. It was like a display of the wealth of the king which was meant for the happiness of the people. 

4. After his attack of Mathura, the victorious monarch distributed [gifts] to all houses and inns. With a view to making gifts universal gave away the spoils of victory to the Brahmanas. 

5. 
   

Kharavela and Ashoka [Comparison]

After such a remarkable role as a conqueror and a military genius, Kharavela suddenly changed the course of his career like Asoka, and turned to religious activities. As a Jain Monarch, he entered upon his new role to champion the cause of Jainism. 

Conclusion: 

The Hatigumpha inscription suddenly closes itself by describing the religious activities of Kharavela in his 13th regnal year. That year, therefore, is taken as the last of Kharavela's reign. 

• Thus, in a brief period of his role as a king, Kharavela achieved splendid victories in Western, southern and northern India. He established his supremacy over a large part of India raising thereby the status of Kalinga to that of an empire. Rightly, therefore, Kharavela has been described in the Manchapuri Cave inscription of his chief queen as the ‘Chakravarti’ monarch of Kalinga. 

 

 

Examine the role of guilds in the economic life of ancient India. [1982, 20m] 

Write a short essay on: “The role of guilds in the economic life of India from c. 200 B.C. to c. A.D. 300.” [1986, 20m] 

Assess the role of guilds and trade organizations in the development of early Indian economy. [2010, 30m] 

Trace the role of guilds and trade organizations in the development of early Indian economy. [2015, 15m] 

Literary and epigraphic evidence show that Srenis or guilds formed an important feature of economic life of people in ancient India. 

1. The Sreni was more in nature of group of professionals, merchants or artisans who worked in an association. 

2. Mahavastu and Milind panho mentions 75 different occupations many of which were transformed into guilds. The Jatakas mention the number of guilds as 18. 

3. The growing importance of guilds is attested by the fact that law-givers like Gautama and Manu recognized the rights of traders, cultivators, horseman, artisans etc to frame rules for their respective associations. These rules were to be taken into consideration by king in giving legal decision. Manu refers to Sreni-dharma as having the force of law. 

Role of Guilds in ECONOMY: 

1. Crucial factor in organisation of production - vast majority of artisans joined guild since it was difficult for them to compete as individual against the guilds. Hired labour and slaves - to meet demand and to raise output. 

2. Fixed rules of work and quality of finished product and controlled its price to safeguard both the artisan and the customer.  

3. Involved in foreign trade. ‘Ayyavdle’ a guild from South India operated long distance trade. Manigrammam, another guild composed of multiple nationalities undertook foreign trade. Many guilds operated at local level as well as on larger (country) level.  

4. ‘Royal connection’ of the guild - Investment in commercial enterprise brought larger returns. Royalty thus had interest in ensuring well-being of guild. 

5. Act as banker, financer and trustee as well. Generally, these were carried out by different category of merchants - ‘Sresthin’ in North India, ‘Chettyars’ in South India. 

6. With increase in trade and commerce the major guilds grew even stronger. Leading guilds were those of potters, metal workers, carpenters, etc. One wealthy potter owned 500 potters shop.  

 

 

Satavahanas
AMARAVATI School of Arts: one of the three major styles or schools of ancient Indian art, the other two being the Gandhara style and the Mathura style.   Amaravati art form evolved and flourished for nearly six centuries commencing from 200-100 BC. It was patronized first by the Satavahanas and later by the Ikshvakus.   Some of the Buddhist sculptures of Amaravati have Greco-Roman influence that was the direct result of the close trade and diplomatic contacts between South India and the ancient Romans.	Dharanikota / Dhanyakataka, Guntur, AP  Buddhist Viharas and tupas, River Krishna near Amaravati;   Important town between 400 BC and 400 AD.  Probably eastern capital of Satavahanas.  Important trade centre – connected to Pratisthana and port of Bharuch.  Roman amphora, lead coins with lion and elephant emblem found here.  Important centre of Mahasmghika school of Buddhism.
Paithan / Pratishthana, Aurangabad district, Maharashtra  Capital of the Satavahanas that ruled from 2nd C BC to 2nd C AD, Godavari River.  Mention in: 1st C AD Greek book, Periplus of Erythrian Sea and in Ashokan Rock Edict.  Also the home of the great Maharashtrian saint Eknath.  Famous today for its sarees — the Paithani silk saris.	Ter, ancient Tagara, Osmanabad district, Maharashtra  Famous ivory figure of Shree Lakshmi.  Large brick stupa.  Both commercial and religious centre.  Important emporium of trade during Saka-Satavahana period.  Lay on trade route between Eastern Deccan and Nashik.

 

Palas	Kharavela
The earliest examples of miniature painting in India exist in the form of illustrations to the religious texts on Buddhism executed under the Palas of the eastern India and the Jain texts executed in western India during the 11th-12th centuries A.D.  The Pala dynasty came to power around 750 A.D. The Pala School of art first flourished in the Magadha region of Southern Bihar, the homeland of Buddhist religion. Not surprisingly, the majority of early Pala-period remains are Buddhist.  The Pala art came to a sudden end after the destruction of the Buddhist monasteries at the hands of Muslim invaders in the first half of the 13th century. Some of the monks and artists escaped and fled to Nepal, which helped in reinforcing the existing art traditions there.  Dhaka, Bangladesh  1st C AD, Buddhist Kingdom of Kamrupa to Pala to Hindu Sena dynasty in 9th C AD.  Goddess Dhakeshwari’s temple by Ballal Sena in 12th C.  Emerged as Mughal military base in 1576, after Chittagong.  Major expansion took place under Shaista Khan governor of Aurangzeb.	Udaygiri and Khandagiri Caves, near Bhubaneshwar  Partly natural and partly artificial.  Situated on two adjacent hills, mentioned as Kumari Parvat in Hathigumpha inscription.  Udaygiri has 18 caves while Khandagiri has 15 caves.  Their art is contemporaneous with that of Sanchi.  Caves called lena, were dug out mainly during reign of Kharavela for Jain Ascetics.  This is in Brahmi Script.  Mancapuri Cave inscription is in Devanagri so is Sarpagumpha.  Anantagumpha inscription is in Oriya.
	Sisupalgarh near Bhubaneshwar was Capital of Odisha and it existed from 5C BC to after 4th C AD. That is, it was well before Mauryan Empire.  Site is one of largest and best preserved early historic fortification in India.