The Guptas - Samudragupta; Skandagupta; Polity and administration
Decline of Gupta
4. Write a short essay on: “Factors that led to the rise and fall of the Gupta Empire.” [1996, 20m] |
Economic conditions, Coinage of the Guptas, Land Grants, Feudalism; Major philosophical thinkers and schools, Ideas in Science and Mathematics, Caste system; Position of Women
Fa hien, Yuan Chawang
6. Examine the information of Fa Hien about the political, religious, social and economic conditions of India. Make a comparative study of his account with that of Yuan Chawang. [2003, 60m] |
Nalanda, Vikramshila and Vallabhi
Maukharis, Vardhanas
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Describe the expansion of the Gupta Empire under Samudragupta with the help of the Allahabad pillar inscription. [1979, 60m]
Describe the expansion of the Gupta Empire under Samudragupta. [2006, 30m]
The most important epigraph of Samudragupta reign is the Prashasti on the unique Allahabad pillar which was composed by his court poet, Harisena. The inscription contains 33 lines. The Allahabad inscription, in prose and verse, eulogizes the achievements, conquests and personality of Samudragupta. Samudragupta emerges from the Allahabad Prashasti as a restless conqueror.
Conquests of Samudragupta and the consequent expansion of the Gupta Empire
Samudragupta must have inherited an empire that included the Magadha area of Bihar and adjoining areas of Uttar Pradesh and Bengal, stretching to the Himalayan foothills in the north. His initial military campaigns were directed towards extending his control over territories lying immediately beyond this area.
Campaigns in Aryavarta and forest regions | Campaigns in Frontier areas and subordination of Sanghas | Campaign in South |
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Write a short essay on: “The significance of the policy of matrimonial alliances for the expansion and consolidation of the Gupta Empire.” [1986, 20m]
Others - Matrimonial Alliances
Line 23 of the inscription mentions some rulers rendering all kinds of service to Samudragupta, seeking the use of the Gupta Garuda seal and entering into matrimonial alliances with the Guptas of their own accord.
At the end of his reign, Samudragupta empire seems to have comprised much northern India, with the exception of Kashmir, Western Punjab, Rajasthan, Sindh, and Gujarat. In north-west, Samudragupta claims to have impressed his might over the Shakas and the Kushanas. In the south, the kings of the Dakshinapath were humbled but suffered neither annexation nor a reduction to feudatory status.
It can be concluded that the Guptas did not create an all-India empire under their direct control but through their successful military campaigns, they did establish a network of political relationships of paramountcy and subordination that extended over a large part of the subcontinent.
Write a short essay on: “Skandagupta’s war with the Hunas” [1997, 20m]
Skandagupta was a king of Gupta Dynasty. He came upon the throne after the death of his father, Kumaragupta. At the close of the reign of Kumaragupta, Pushyamitra, probably a tribe associated with the Hunas, had invaded Gupta Empire and defeated it. But, Skandagupta, the crown prince, restored the fortunes of Gupta Empire by defeating Pushyamitra. Bhitari Pillar inscription mentions Skandagupta defeating Pushyamitra.
Invasion of the Hunas | Defeat of the Hunas | Evidences of Skandagupta’s war with Hunas | Impact of Hunas invasion |
When Skandagupta came to the throne in 455 AD, he encountered several wars. The Pushyamitra danger had been averted, but one more formidable closely followed it: an invasion of the Hunas. Hunas were ferocious barbarian hordes who belonged to the Central Asia. One branch of them, known as Epithalites or White Hunas invaded India through the north-western passes and threatened Gupta Empire. Threats were even more fearful due to the tale of the terrible atrocities and destruction which marked the advance of the Hunas. | Once again, Skandagupta rose to the occasion and inflicted upon the barbarians a defeat so decisive that India was saved and for half a century, Hunas dared not to disturb Gupta Empire. In the light of the Hunas raids and conquests in other countries like Persia, the victory of Skandagupta can be considered as one of the greatest achievements of the age. This heroic feat fully entitled Skandagupta to the title of Vikramaditya, which Samudragupta and Chandragupta II did before him. | Bhitari pillar inscription mentions Hunas invasion and defeat by Skandagupta. Junagarh inscription also mentions the defeat of mlechhas (most probably Hunas) at the hand of Skandagupta. In the year 465, a Brahman, when endowing a temple to the Sun in Gupta Empire, described the rule of his king in the central parts of the empire as “augmenting and victorious” probably indicating Skandagupta victory over Hunas. | Hunas war and other battles must have proved a great strain on the financial resources of the empire. Probably that is the reason, gold coins issued by Skandagupta were not only comparatively small in numbers but also show depreciation in the purity of gold. Hunas invasions also occurred probably at the close of Skandagupta's reign and also after his death. Hunas invasions were one of the main reasons of the decline of Gupta Empire. |
Discuss the provincial and district administrative units of the Gupta Empire with the designations and functions of the officers. [2014, 15m]
What are the salient features of the administrative system of the Guptas? [2005, 60m]
The King was the embodiment of all powers. Assumed imperial titles such as maharajadhiraja, parama-bhattaraka and parameshvara. Claimed divine status as the Allahabad prashasti describes Samudragupta as a god dwelling on the earth.
The King was assisted by council of ministers. The ministers were known by various designations like mantrin, amtya, sachiva and were most probably hereditary. Important men probably had a say in local administration.
Some of the high ranking functionaries
Sandhivigrahika (minister for peace and war): In-charge of the conduct of relations with the other states, including initiating war and concluding alliances and treaties.
Kumaramatya: Pre-eminent among the amatyas and equivalent in status to princes of royal blood. Kumaramatyas were variously attached to the king, crown prince, revenue department or a province.
Dandanayakas: They were high-ranking judicial or miliatry officers.
Baladhikrita: Commander-in-chief of the army.
Mahashvapati: Commander of cavalry.
Mahapratihara: Chief of the palace guards.
Khadyatapakita: Superintendent of the royal kitchen.
Provincial Administration | District Administration | Below District administration: |
Provinces known as deshas or bhuktis. Uparikas: governors appointed by the king.
Goptri: Perhaps it was another term for the governor. Skandagupta’s Junagarh inscription talks about Parnadatta as Goptri of Saurashtra. Provincial government played important role in the repair of waterworks. For ex: repair of Sudarshana lake after it burst its embankments. | Provinces divided into districts known as vishyas. Vishyapati: Head of the vishyas and were appointed by the provincial governor. They were assisted in their administrative duties by prominent members of the town like:
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The administration of the Guptas cannot be justly claimed to have been genuinely original, but it may be said to have been imposing and benevolent. Discuss.
Admin - Gupta rulers created and elaborate system comprising central, provincial and sub-provincial institution. Monarchical, King was head, hereditary, primogeniture law, divine origin. Most of these features were continuation of political admin from Maurya and Pre-Maurya levels.
Provincial level head was UPARIKA MAHARAJA - this designation was new in Gupta Empire. Appointment was made on merit. Arthasastra also mentions. Governor were transferred every 5 years. District chief Kumaraamatya (Gupta) was also known as Vishyapati. During Mauryan period Kumaraamatya was provincial governor.
Judicial Legal system reflect continuity. Large army reflects continuity.
Despite Gupta age reflecting continuity, its progressive, liberal outlook far more developed than any other. Nalanda U, Temple construction patronised, donations issues, SUDARSHANA lake repair by provincial governor Skandagupta, Music, culture and painting patronised.
How far do the coins of the Gupta’s provide clues regarding trends in economy, polity, religion and arts? Discuss them in the light of corroborating evidence from archaeology and literature. [1981, 60m]
Give an account of the use of gold coins by commoners in the Gupta Period. [2009, 30m]
Significance of Gupta Coins - without this history would have been incomplete
Political life of Gupta Age - Chronology, title of Maharajadhiraja => sovereign king; Vikramaditya => victory over foreigners; Gupta Queen Kumari Dhruvdevi (w/o CG II) => women participated in state affairs; Lichhavi on coins of CG I and Lichhavi Dauhitra on SG coins => Lichhavis were powerful and related; Large# of coins => dept of mint.
Military History - 'Ashwamedha' type coins of SG => great conqueror; Tiger-slayer type of coins => conquer of Bengal.
Religious life - 'Garuda' as royal emblem + title of 'Parambhagvata' => worshippers of Vishnu; Durga seated on lion - CG I; Peacock - KG I => worship of Kartikeya; Ashwamedha type => Brahmanical sacrifice.
Cultural Life - Coins itself example of miniature art; SG playing veena => music patronized.
Discuss the conditions of economic life in the age of the Guptas. [1982, 60m]
Write a short essay on “The economic prosperity in the Gupta period.” [1990, 20m]
Economic Prosperity in Gupta Period: Level of monetisation increased enormously - large # of Au, Ag coins. Means of communication significant progress - ship building industry ~500 person big ships. External trade progress - Roman trade in silk. | Decline around middle of 5th Century AD: Huna invasions; Decline of Western Roman Empire => Indo-Roman trade suffered. Sericulture began in Rome => demand of silk from India reduced. Beginning of Sino-Tibetan conflict ~700AD - land routes affected => trade suffered with China. Decline of GE in mid of 6th C AD <> political unification no more; level of monetisation decline. | Decline of 2o Activity => De urban Ahichhatra and Kosambi abandoned in 7th C AD. Agri increased => begin of feudal age. Contact w outside world reduced => inward looking attitude dominant. Social Status of Shudras increased =>> Vaishyas declined. |
Examine the development of religion, literature and fine arts under the Guptas. [1980, 60m]
“The Gupta period stands at the center of Indian history.” Discuss the development of arts and literature in that Gupta period in the light of this statement. [1985, 60m]
Highlight the achievements of the Gupta period in the field of literature, science and technology. [1998, 60m]
The Gupta age has been generally marked as the ‘classical age’ for its art, architecture, and literature.
Architecture - Paintings, Sculpture | Gupta period Achievements in the field of literature | Gupta period Achievements in the field of Science and Technology |
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Analyses the characteristics features of the Gupta art and compare them with those of the Mauryan art. [1992, 60m]
classical age refers to that phase of human history during which progress of highest level was witnessed. This level of progress was so high that it became model for future generations and the people in future tried to obtain it. The classicism of Gupta period needs to be comprehended in a light of progress - during the period that preceded it and the period that followed it.
golden age refers to the age in History during which remarkable progress were witnessed in different spheres of human life. Such progress is all round and inclusive in character. The concept of Golden age was put forward by the nationalist school of historians. This school emerged during 1840-1860 as a response and reaction to negative portrayal of Indian history by the colonial historians. Historians like RC Majumdar, HC Raychadhuri and K Nilakantha Sastri belong to this group. These historians developed the concept of Golden age to counter the idea of dark age being propagated by colonial historians. It was emphasised that under the imperial Guptas remarkable progress was witnessed in every sphere of human life.
Gupta Period was the golden period of ancient Indian History. Analyse the statement. How far is it correct to say that Gupta period constitutes a classical age of Indian history.
ATTRIBUTES of Golden Age in Gupta Period: | LIMITATIONS of GOLDEN CHARACTER GUPTA AGE: |
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Basis of Classicism in Gupta Age: |
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Efficient, effective, lpa administration. Progress in Sanskrit literature. Progress in Science and Technology. Progress in Sculpture. Progress in Painting. | Caste distinctions and Caste rigidities became sharper than ever before. Fahian spoke about the plight of Chandalas. Religion was used as an instrument for maintaining the varna-divided society. So, in the sphere of cultural development and in the field of astronomical, mathematical and medical advancement Gupta period can be seen as remarkable phase but not in other spheres. |
[ lpa = liberal and progressive administration]
In this way the golden character of Gupta Age can be accepted only in degrees and not in absolute terms.
In what ways does religion as reflected in the Vedic texts differ from the religion of the Gupta period? [1991, 60m]
Most of features as seen today emerged during Vedic age. Period 300-600AD often seen as 'Brahmanical revival' though rulers followed a policy of tolerance to sects.
GUPTA | VEDIC |
Institutionalization of Religion /emergence of temples. Parvati temple at Nachna-Kuthara, Dashavtara temple at Jhansi, etc. | Personification of Forces of Nature. |
Monotheistic - Vishnu came supreme, Vishnupurana, Vishnusmriti. Garuda became the emblem of Gupta emperors. | Polytheistic. |
Bhakti - enunciated first in Gita and a vital force in Vaishnavism; Salvation through grace of god. | Rituals and Sacrifices - crux. Salvation through Sacrifices. |
Direct relation between man and god. Idol Worship started. | Priestly class important. |
A new element incarnation was added. Varaha (boar) avtar of Vishnu. | Incarnation not present. |
Cult of the Great Goddesses - Goddess Durga became very important. Famous one - Mahisasurmardini Cave 6 of Udaygiri (MP). | Female goddesses did appear like Usha, Aditi, Savitri, etc but they were not prominent. |
Sects - Buddhism, J, S popular; KARMAKANDA inscription of Kumaragupta I refers to installation of Linga (Saivism though not as popular as Vaisnavism. | These trends were absent. |
Purushartha emerged. |
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Assess the status of women in India from c. 4th century BC to c. 6th century AD. [2005, 60m]
Throw light on the condition of common man in the Gupta period. [2007, 60m]
Brahmanical outlook was dominant => enjoyed highest status;
Varnashrama dharma was followed but not rigidly <= Charudatta, hero of MRICHHAKHATIKA was a Brahmin as well as famous trader.
Shudras status improved - involved in Agri, A&C, T&C (BRIHASPATISMRITI), Sudra officials in Ujjain (MRICHHAKHATIKA), law books of age allow Sudras to hear epics and puranas.
New form of social distinction - size of houses: Brahmana (5 room), K 4, V 3, S 2 (Varahamihira).
Kayasthas emerge as new caste - land record keepers (YAJNAVALKASMRITI).
Number of slaves increased - 15 types (NARADASMRITI).
Untouchables organise themselves - PANCHAMVARNA.
WOMEN - Allowed Widow Remarriage (NARADASMRITI), BRIHASPATI opposed widow remarriage.
Marriage age for girls was 12-13 years.
Upanayana Ceremony was not performed for girls (BRIHASPATISMRITI).
DEVADASI system commenced - large number in Mahakala temple of Ujjain (Kalidasa).
Sati also commenced - ERAN inscription.
Practice of veiling commenced - high caste women.
MAP Points:
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Navratnas in Vikramaditya’s court: Nine gems during the reign of Vikramaditya (Chandragupta II) of the Gupta Empire were: Kalidasa, Vetala Bhatta, Varahamihira, Vararuchi, Amarasimha, Dhanvantari, Kahapanak, Shanku, and Harisena.
Classical Sanskrit Literature: Includes Kavya (epic poetry), Nataka (drama), lyric poetry, romance, popular tales, didactic fables, gnomic poetry, scientific literature on grammar, medicine, law, astronomy, mathematics, etc. On the whole it is secular in nature. Champu Kavya is a mixed prose and verse style. Eg: Allahabad Prashasti. Agama as distinguished from Kavya is religious or canonical text while Itihasa is traditional history and shastras are treatises on specific subjects. Nidarshana: A work that shows through illustration what should and should not be done. Eg. Panchatantra.
Kumarasambhava (love making between Shiva and Parvati) [Kalidasa]. Meghaduta – lovelorn yaksha banished to Ramagiri mountain by God Kubera beseeches a passing cloud to relay his message to his beloved [Kalidasa].
Idea of divisibility of matter given long back in India, around 500 BC: (Maharishi Kanad).
Purva Mimansa philosophy: Ritualism, anti-asceticism and anti-mysticism. Mimansa theory: Gods named in the Vedas have no existence apart from the mantras that speak their names. Mimansa School developed and emphasized karma-kanda, or the study of ritual actions, using the four early Vedas, while the Vedanta schools developed and emphasized jnana-kanda, the study of knowledge and spirituality, using the later parts of Vedas like the Upanishads.
Language of the inscriptions (evolution in India): The language of the earliest written records, viz., the Asokan edicts, is Prakrit (Besides Prakrit, Greek and Aramaic languages also). All the edicts of Asoka engraved in the Kharoshthi and Brahmi scripts are in the Prakrit language. From the 4th century onwards, with the rise of the Guptas, Sanskrit became the predominant language of Indian epigraphs. This is because Guptas were great patrons of Brahmanism and Sanskrit language. The contemporary rulers of the Guptas, in central India and parts of the Deccan, like the Vakatakas, the Kadambas and later Gangas of Karnataka and the Pallavas in south India also employed Sanskrit in their inscriptions. The copper-plate charters of the Pallavas, the Cholas and the Pandyas are written in both Sanskrit and Tamil languages. In this period, transition from Prakrit to Sanskrit in royal inscriptions became complete. From stage of intermediate Prakrits (Eg. Maharashtri, Shauraseni, and Magadhi) it transitioned to phase of dialects known as Apabhramsha or Deshi.
Who were the Maukharis? Discuss their political relations with the Later Guptas of Magadha. [2000, 60m]
Write a short essay on “The Maukharis paving the way for the glory of Harshavardhana” [1988, 20m]
The Maukharis flourished in the Gangetic valley during post Gupta age and they ruled over an extensive area with their capital at Kannauj. The first important Maukharis king was Ishanavarman who claimed victory over the Andhras, the Sulikas of Orissa, and the Gaudas and assumed the title of Maharajadhiraja. | Kannauj or KANYAKUBJA:  |
The Maukharis had paved the way for the glory of Harshavardhana because of the following reasons:
The Maukhari king Ishanvarmana had defeated Hunas invaders. This had weakened Hunas and when the Hunas attacked the Kingdom of Prabhakarvardhana (father of Harshavardhana), they were easily defeated. In this way, Harshavardhana of the Pushyabhuti dynasty of Thanesar was free from Huna danger. This helped him to spread and strengthen his Empire.
Bana’s Harshacharita mentions that there was a matrimonial alliance between the Pushyabhuti dynasty and the Maukharis, as the Maukhari king Grihavarman was married with Rajyasri, the sister of Harshavardhana. This led to increase in the power and prestige of the Pushyabhuti dynasty.
There was a long duel between the Maukharis and the ‘Later Guptas’. Devagupta, a Gupta king of Malwa, who was an ally of King Sasanka of Gauda, defeated and killed the Maukhari king Grahvarmana who was married with Harshvardhana’s sister Rajyasri. This led to the control of Maukharis kingdom coming under Harshavardhana. In this way he became the ruler of a vast empire without any conquest through war. He also acquired the capital of Maukharis, Kannauj, which had strategic position. This increased the strength and glory of Harshavardhana.
The Later Guptas and the Gauda Kingdom weakened due to continuous war with the Maukharis. This helped Harshavardhana to expand his Empire.
Harsha is described as ‘the lord of the whole of north India’. Determine the extent of his empire and discuss his political relations with Sasanka, Bhaskaravarman and Pulakesin II. [1985, 60m]
Critically examine the sources of information for the study of Harshavardhan and discuss his religious policy. [1984, 60m]
“Harshvardhan was himself great, but he has been made greater by Ban and Yuan Chiang.” Critically examine the statement. [1999, 60m]
“Harsha owes his greatness largely not to any real achievements but to formulate descriptions by two famous men.” Discuss. [1987, 60m]
Harshvardhan was himself great, but he has been made greater by Ban and Yuan Chiang.
In the history of ancient India the name of King Harshavardhana is included in the list of greatest rulers. Harsha ruled for more than four decades and his reign is considered as a dividing line between Ancient and Medieval age.
The references found in contemporary sources like Harshacharita of Banabhata and the inscriptions left behind throw light on the success and failure of Harsha as a ruler.
Chinese traveller Hieun Tsang also left behind a detailed description of Harsha’s reign in his book ‘Si-yu-ki’.
Hieun Tsang and Harsha: | Banabhata and Harsha: |
Conclusion: Hieun Tsang was patronized by Harsha. Both of them were Buddhist. Therefore, some bias can be naturally expected in his descriptions. |
Conclusion: Bana was Harsha’s court poet. Therefore, it’s quite natural to expect that he portrayed his patron in a positive light. |
That is why it is commented that writings of Bana and Hieun Tsang tried to portray Harsha greater than he was.
Harsha combined in himself the qualities of both Asoka and Samudragupta. Discuss.
Ashoka and Harsha
Ashoka was a great ruler. He was follower of Shaivism in his early life and later on adopted Buddhism. Same was with Harsha, he was a great ruler and a Buddhist.
Both Harsha and Ashoka was welfare oriented rulers.
Because of these qualities it is commented that Harsha combined in him the qualities of Ashoka.
Harsha and Samudragupta
Samudragupta was great military conqueror. He fought 100 battles during his reign and emerged victorious in all of them. Harsha was also a successful military commander.
Critical Analysis:
Both Ashoka and Samudragupta were far greater than Harsha in absolute terms. But when their achievements are viewed in context of the challenges faced by them it becomes quite clear that Harsha’s achievements were no less significant than these great rulers.
Both Ashoka and Samudragupta inherited strong and extensive empires but when Harsha set on throne he faced crisis everywhere. He had to save not only his own kingdom but also that of his sister Rajasri’s from a serious crisis.
Harsha’s age was dominated by proto-feudal forces. The resource availability with Harsha was limited when compared to Ashoka and Samudragupta.
Because of these it becomes clear that Harsha’s rule was no less significant than Asoka's or Samudragupta’s. That’s why it is rightly said commented that Harsha combined in himself the qualities of both Ashoka and Samudragupta.
Discuss critically the role Harsha played in the history of his times. [1989, 60m]
Critically examine the achievements of emperor Harsha.
Political Achievements | Military Achievements | Diplomatic Achievements | Cultural Achievements |
c. at Kannauj - marked the end of the phase of political degeneration going on in NI. political unity and integrity by subjugating the regional principalities (long gap of almost a century). Central Authority in NI by subjugating the Feudal elements. Administration was strong and effective + deep personal interest in the affairs of state. Welfare oriented - charitable assemblies once in every 5 years (Fifth of such ~ ‘Maha-moksha-parishad’ at Prayag seen by Hieun Tsang in 643 AD) Donations to Brahmanas and poor. He donated 200 villages to Nalanda University. | Large army comprising infantry, cavalry and elephant force. Conquered Bengal as well as Gujarat region. Title of ‘Magadhraj’ indicates that Bihar was also part of him empire. | Friendly relations with his contemporary Indian rulers as well as with the foreigners. Bhaskar Varman, the king of Assam (Kamarupa) was his close friend. A number of gifts were exchanged between the two. A number of embassies were exchanged with China by Harsha. According to Chinese records, Chinese King, ‘Tai Tsung’ sent three embassies to Harsha’s court. The 3rd embassy arrived just few months after Harsha’s death when king Arjuna was ruling over Kannauj. | Not only an efficient administrator, a successful military commander but at the same time he was a great patron of art and culture. Patronised Buddhism like Asoka. A Buddhist assembly at Kannauj under the Chairperson Hieun Tsang. Banabhatta was patronised - wrote Kadamabari and Harshacharita. Author of Priyadashika, Ratnavali and Nagadanda. |
Banskhera inscription contains the signature of Harsha.
Was Harsha Great? | Limitations of Harsha’s greatness: |
In the light of these extreme challenges the achievements of Harsha clearly reveal his greatness. |
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Write a short essay on: “Nalanda Mahavihara” [1997, 20m]
Most of the information about Nalanda is based on the records of Xuan Zang—previously spelt as ‘Hsuan-tsang’— which states that the foundation of a monastery was laid by Kumaragupta I in the fifth century CE; and this was carried forward by the later monarchs who built up a fantastic university here.
There is evidence that all three Buddhist doctrines— Theravada, Mahayana and Vajrayana—were taught here.
The main brick built shrine known as the Mahabodhi temple which appears to have been originally erected in circa 2nd century A.D. and is encumbered with heavy renovation later.
It was visited by Buddha and Mahavira. Ashoka is said to have worshipped at the chaitya-niches of Sariputra, Buddha's disciple, and erected a temple.
By the time of Harsha A.D. 606-648, Nalanda had become the principal centre of Mahayana learning and a famed University town with numerous shrines and monasteries which attracted scholars from far and near. The Chinese Pilgrims Huien Tsang and Fa-hien studied at Nalanda.
Nalanda was an important centre of Pala sculptures and bronzes and has also yielded seals and sealing of great historical significance.
Buddhist monasteries like Nalanda, thus, were prolific centres of art production that had a decisive impact on the arts of all Buddhist countries in Asia.
Vallabhi, Saurashtra Peninsula, near Bhavnagar
Capital of ancient Maitraka dynasty.
Maitraka came under rule of Harsha in mid-7th C but retained local autonomy.
Noted center of Jains – 466AD Vallabhi council of Jains produced in writing the religious canon (Jain Agamas).
Xuan Zang in 2nd quarter of 7th C, found it ruler Buddhist. When Itsing visited in last quarter of 7th C f it to be great centre of learning Jainism including Buddhism.
Noted for its catholicity and the students from all over the Country.
Vikramshila or Antichak, Bhagalpur district
A Mahavihara University was f. by King Dharmapal (770-810 AD) of Pala Dynasty.
More than 100 teachers and about 1000 students. Eminent scholars, one among them Dipankara, who propagated Buddhism to Tibet.
Different subjects were taught but the most important branch of learning was Tantrism.
A large number of stone and bronze sculptures of Buddha, Bodhisatva, Avalokiteshwara, etc have been found.
Thanesar, near Kurukshetra, Haryana.
Capital in 7th Century.
Hieun visited and described it as prosperous city.
Important centre of education, music and trade.
Sacked by Ghazni in 1014AD.
Martand Sun Temple, Anantnag, J&K
Kashmiri Hindu Temple, built by Lalitaditya Mukpida, Karkota Dynasty
Dedicated to Surya, built 8 CAD.
Excellent specimen of Kashmiri architecture, which blended Gandharan, Gupta, Chinese, Roman, Byzantine, Greek.
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