Syllabus:
(i) Emergence of two power blocs – COLD WAR (iii) End of the cold war and US ascendancy in the World as the lone superpower; Post truth World
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
“The Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan were considered by Russian Bloc as a weapon against Russia in order to restrict her influence.” Critically examine. [2015, 20 Marks]
“After World War II, the strategy of the West towards Soviet bloc crystallized as a ‘policy of containment’.” [2008, 20 Marks]
In the post -Second World War scenario friends in war did not remain friends in peace. Examine the truth of this view in the period of your study. [1999, 60 Marks]
During the Second World War USA, Britain and France fought together along with Russia to counter the threat posed by fascist powers i.e. Germany, Italy and Japan.
Though the allied powers dreaded Russian communism they made her their friend to counter the bigger threat. However, this friendship came under severe threat as soon as Allied Victory was in sight. USSR accused Britain and USA that they deliberately delayed the opening of the second part so that Germans could inflict heavy damages on USSR.
During the Postdam conference the friendship rocked the bottom as Truman was very cold in making amends with USSR. Moreover, he did not reveal the true character of atomic bomb to Stalin. Before the planned date of attack on Japan, USA dropped atomic bomb on Hiroshima resulting into formal beginning of the cold war.
This rivalry between USA and USSR divided the whole world into two power blocks. The cold war reflected during various incidents after the WW-II not only in Europe but also across the globe.
The USSR forcefully established communist governments in Eastern Europe despite the promise of fair and free elections made during Potsdam conference. In return USA retaliated by issuing Truman doctrine and Marshal Plan. Blockade of Berlin imposed in 1949 by USSR resulted into formation of NATO. USSR then formed its own military block known as Warsaw Pact.
This rivalry also reflected in the construction of Nuclear and other military weapons. USA produced hydrogen bombs, ICBMs etc. USSR also started to produce nuclear weapons, ICBMs, ABMs putting the whole world on the edge of a catastrophe.
The cold war rivalry did not limit itself to the European Continent. It reflected in Korean War (1951), Cuban Missile Crisis, Vietnam War across the world. Formation of military pacts such as SEATO and CENTO were the repercussions of global dimensions of Cold War.
The Western European Countries viz. Britain and France allied with USSR during cold war. Thus, it can be said that friends in war did not remain friends in peace.
Truman doctrine: Before the US began its expansionist policies during the cold war, its international policy was isolationist. It meant that the US would not intervene in the internal affairs of a country normally unless USA is threatened or destabilised.
However, with Soviet adventurism, Truman pledged to:
Support Free people who are resisting subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressures.
Commitment to a policy of containing communism not just in Europe but throughout the world.
Marshal Plan: Under this, USA extended aid to Europe in 1945 that enabled cooperation among European Nations (Organisation of European Economic Cooperation) on trade and economic issues.
Outline the circumstances Leading to détente. [2016]
How was the international relations between 1970s and 1980s?
Détente | USSR and USA: | China and USA: | USSR and China: |
Permanent relaxation of tensions between East and West. First real signs could be seen in early 1970s and eventually it led to end of Cold War. Reasons for détente: USSR was finding expense of keeping up with Americans crippling – essential to reduce defence spending so as to devote more resources to raise standard of living. America realizing the little success in its way of handling communism in Vietnam. China anxious about their isolation, nervous about American intentions in Vietnam and the worsening relations with USSR. Western Europe nations worry of nuclear war fallouts – they being in frontline. | 1st détente - Hotline telephone link; ban on use of outer space nuke weapons; SALT limitations on # of ABM, ICBM, MIRVs; 2nd Cold War - 1980s both sides build up nuclear arsenals; US - Star Wars (weapons based in space to destroy ballistic missiles in flight). 2nd détente – thanks to determination of Mikhail Gorbachev and also Reagan (though he didn’t want to give up Star Wars); 1986 Chernobyl disaster – anti nuclear feelings in USSR. INF Treaty (Intermediate Range Nuclear Forces) – an important turning point in Nuke arms race since 1st time any weapons had been destroyed; however it amounted 4% of existing stocks; it did not include British and French Weapons. | Initial hostility – USA support to Chiang Kai-shek, Chinese backing of Ho Chi Minh; Situation improve in 1971 and communist China allowed as member of UN; Climax of detention in 1979 – USA recognise PRC formally and exchange ambassadors. Tiananmen Square 1989 – thousand students killed and many later executed – worldwide condemnation; Naval exercises by China near Taiwan. | Khrushchev’s policies (peaceful co-existence) - Chinese accused Russians of revisionism – (revising or interpreting teachings of Marx and Lenin to suit their own needs, like achieve communism without violent revolution). Chinese grievances against USSR in 1989 – presence of troops in Afghan; soviet backing of Vietnam in Kampuchea; troops build up along Mongolia and Manchuria; New Era in Sino-Russian relations by Gorbachev – 5 years pacts on trade; regular contact; withdrew of Vietnam troops in 1989. |
Factors leading to the collapse of Soviet communism and the Soviet Union, 1985-1991
The Second Group or Socialist Block: the east European countries whom soviet army had liberated from fascist forces came under control of USSR. These were modelled on Soviet lines and held together by Warsaw Pact, a military alliance. This group was known as Second World and its leader was USSR.
Problems of the Soviet system: it became very bureaucratic and authoritarian. One party system had tight control over all institutions and there was no accountability to people. Russia supposed to be one among equals dominated the 15 republics which constituted the USSR. It came to end 74 years later.
Berlin wall was built in 1961 to separate East Berlin from West Berlin. This more than 150 km wall which stood for 28 years symbolised the division between capitalist and communist world. It was finally broken in 1989.
“By the 1980s, the Communist system of the Soviet Union was incapable of maintaining the country’s role as a Superpower.” Explain this statement. [2007, 60 Marks] [2013, 30 Marks]
In what way did the political changes in Soviet Union influence the events in Eastern Europe during the closing decades of the 20th Century? [2016]
Analyse the factors for the collapse of Soviet Communism and Soviet Union during 1985-1991. [2004, 60 Marks]
Why and how did Communism collapse in Eastern Europe? What was the situation in Eastern Europe after Communism? Collapse of Communism in Eastern Europe and End of Cold War: International Relations transformed.
Economic Failure and Glasnost | Poland leads the way | Situation in Eastern Europe after Communism |
Economic Failure – Communism simply did not produce the standard of living which should have been possible given the vast resources available. In fact in later years Soviet Union became dependent on Wheat Imports from USA. Inefficient, over-centralized and subject to many restrictions, like, trading within the communist bloc only. Increasing contact with the West in 1980s showed people how backward the east was in comparison to the west. Mikhail Gorbachev – new policies of glasnost and perestroika – criticism of system was encouraged – criticism inevitably turned against the Communist party itself. In the satellite states – critics became more daring as they realized Gorbachev would not send Soviet troops to fire on them.
| General Jaruzelski in 1981 banned ‘Solidarity’ and arrested thousands of activists demanding referendum. However, in 1988 protests on account of economic failure, General did not risk using force as there would be no backing from Moscow – talks opened between communist government, Solidarity and other opposition groups. Two houses were formed with 65% seats reserved for communist in lower house. After the collapse of communism, guaranteed seats were removed. The peaceful revolution spreads to Hungary – conflict between reformists and those wanting stricter control – eventually elections in 1990 – communists suffer a crushing defeat. Germany reunited – Protestant Church in East Germany campaign to bring an end to repressive and atheistic communist regime. Berlin wall was breached (8/11/1989) and free elections held. Nearly everybody in East Germany seemed to want immediate reunion. Gorbachev promised that all Russian troops would be withdrawn by 1994. Reunited at midnight on 3/10/1990. Czechoslovakia – one of most successful economies of Eastern Europe but by 1980s industry failed to modernize and economy ran into trouble. Suddenly in matter of days – VELVET revolution – 17/11/1989 – a huge demonstration in Prague, a national strike declared – communist regime toppled. Rest of Eastern Europe –
War broke out between Azerbaijan and Armenia over disputed territory. Fighting in Georgia where people in north wanted to form a separate state. | Broadly similar problem: how to change from a planned or command economy to a free market economy. Heavy industry – old fashioned, uncompetitive, loss of guaranteed markets – so nobody wanted to buy its shares. Prices of consumer goods soared and very few people could afford. Standard of living was even lower than under the final years of Communism. In Poland the first four years of non-communist rule were hard for ordinary people who were bitterly disappointed now. East Germans were fortunate having the wealth of West Germans but here too were tensions. West Germans resented ‘their’ money (high taxes) poured into East; East resented West Germans who now moved in and took the best jobs. In Czechoslovakia civil war seemed a strong possibility – a peaceful settlement – split country into two – Czech Republic and Slovakia (1992). The slowest economic progress – Romania, Bulgaria, Albania – 1st half of 1990s was beset by falling output and inflation. |
Disappearance of communism – affected relations between USA, West Europe and Japan – earlier united against communism – now differences appear over trade; USA refused troops during war in Bosnia – burden on other UN member states – US now lone superpower.
The essence of Prestroika is for people to feel they are country’s master.” — Gorbachev. Critically evaluate. [2010, 10 Marks]
Assess Michael Gorbachev contributions to Russia and world.
Michael Gorbachev came to power in 1985. His career was a mixture of brilliant successes and disappointing failures. A dynamic leader he was determined to transform Russia by modernizing and streamlining the Communist Party by his policies:
Glasnost (openness) in human rights and cultural affairs – dissidents were released; anti-Stalin films, novels allowed; a new freedom in news reporting – discuss with frankness Chernobyl disaster – publicised the inefficiency and corruption which the government itself wanted to weed out – provided nobody criticized the party itself.
Perestroika (restructuring – of the party, the economy and the government) –
Economic affairs – small scale private enterprises such as family restaurants, car and TV repairs, painting and private tuition etc allowed; workers coop (up to 50) allowed – aim to bring competition where inefficient services were provided by state, also alternative jobs.
Political changes – members of local soviets were to be elected by people; a new smaller Supreme Soviet (450) would be proper working parliament, reserved seats for communist party would be abolished. Gorbachev did not want to end communism; he wanted to replace existing system by a humane and democratic socialist system.
Two main disappointments: failure to streamline economy; and his complete misunderstanding of the nationalities problem which led to break-up of USSR.
Achievements were enormous: decisive part in allowing countries of Eastern Europe to free and independent; did more than anyone else to end cold war Рpolicies of reducing military expenditure, d̩tente and withdrawal from Afghanistan and eastern Europe; policies of glasnost and perestroika restored freedom (speech, press, association, religion, movement) to people of USSR.
Was the communist system reformable?
Reform should have been possible but it was necessary to use force as Chinese government did in Tiananmen Square – but Gorbachev was reluctant to use force. | The Party was beyond reform as it enjoyed long, uninterrupted period in power – had become arrogant, complacent and corrupt. |
Chinese introduced economic reforms first, leaving the power of Communist Party unchanged. This meant that although the people suffered economic hardships, the government retained tight control over them. Gorbachev tried the other way (sawing off the branch on which he was sitting). | Both Khrushchev and Gorbachev tried to reform the nomenklatura, and both failed, because the elite, the bureaucracy in the government and economic system, were solely concerned to further their own careers and refused to respond to changing circumstances. |
What factors contributed to the emergence of a unipolar world?
Analyse the factors leading to the end of the Cold war and account for the U.S. ascendancy in the world. [2003, 60 Marks]
Account for the factors that brought about the end of the Cold War. [2008, 60 Marks]
Discuss the main factors leading to the collapse of the Soviet Union. [2002, 60 Marks]
Gorbachev’s achievement in foreign affairs was enormous but his policies failed to provide quick results at home and led to collapse of communism - break up of USSR.
Opposition from radicals and conservatives | The economic reforms did not produce results quickly enough | Nationalist Pressures | Rivalry between Gorbachev and Yelstin | Coup of August 1991 |
The radical party members as Boris Yelstin (more radical that Gorbachev) felt that reforms were not drastic enough, and wanted a quick change to free market economy. The conservatives like Yegor Ligachev on other hand felt that reforms were too drastic and party was in danger of losing control. During the Supreme Soviet elections of 1989, Yelstin and many other radicals were not elected – this led to massive protest demonstrations. Before Gorbachev such acts would not have been allowed, but glasnost - encouraging people to voice their criticisms – was in full flow and began to turn against the communist party. | Disastrous results of Law on State Enterprises (removed central planner’s total control over raw materials, production quotas and trade). Wages were now dependent on output and factories focused on expensive goods to increase total output which was measured by value in Roubles than volume (also cheaper goods reduced). Higher wages => printing money => inflation => budget deficit. Basic goods were in very short supply and people were outraged. Coal miners in Siberia found no soap to wash themselves – went on strike – joined by miners from Kazakhstan and Ukraine – disciplined and well organized – formed unions and demanded end of privileged position of CP. In 1990, quarter of population was BPL. | Soviet Union was a federal state consisting of 15 separate republics each with its own Parliament. Earlier under Stalin’s time republics were held under tighter control but glasnost and perestroika encouraged them to hope for more powers for their parliament and more independence from Moscow. Nagarno-Karabakh, a Christian republic under Muslim Azerbaijan wanted to become part of neighbouring Christian Armenia. This led to a fighting. Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia were taken against their will by Russians in 1940. In 1990 encouraged by what was happening in satellite states, the three declared independence. Boris Yelstin made a dramatic comeback as President of Russian Republic in 1990. | Yelstin believed that union should be voluntary while Gorbachev saw it would lead to disintegration. Yelstin was completely disillusioned by the CP while Gorbachev was still hoping that the party could be transformed into humane and democratic organization. Yelstin answer to improve economy was a rapid changeover to a market economy. Gorbachev was much more cautious realizing that this would lead to massive unemployment and even higher prices. | Gorbachev’s vice-president Gennady Yanayev – house arrest Gorbachev – declared a state of emergency, banned demonstrations, brought in tanks and troops to surround public buildings in Moscow. However, the coop was poorly organized. Yeltis who was free called on the people of Moscow; army hesitated to cause heavy casualties by attacking the White house (Parliament of Russian Federation) – Yelstin had triumphed. Even Gorbachev was now convinced that Party was beyond reform. Finally when, Ukraine, the second largest Soviet Republic voted to become independent (Dec 1, 1991) it was clear that old USSR was finished. A new union was negotiated by Yelstin – CIS, fully independent and to work together on economic matters and defence. |
What was the legacy of Communism?
Important achievement – promotion, well-paid jobs with privileges to large number of people from ‘lower-class’ backgrounds (excluded under the Tsar regime); Soviet culture was promoted and so was sport; Performing arts, especially music were subsidized by state and science was given special prominence and funding. Perhaps the greatest achievement of communism was – vital role in defeating the evil regime of Hitler and the Nazis.
Whole range of problems – system was rigid and over-centralized; bureaucrats opposed any radical changes; overburden of military expenditure.
Examine the challenges confronted by the proponents of European unity after the collapse of Soviet Empire in Eastern Europe. [2011,30m]
Assess the significance of the political developments that took place in Eastern Europe during 1989-2001. [2008, 60 Marks]
“With the Cold War over and the Soviet Union gone, the face of international diplomacy has undergone a metamorphosis.” Critically examine. [2012, 10 Marks]
Cold war was the phase of intense ideological battle between the two lone superpowers of the world viz. USA and USSR which took its manifestations in several aspects like political, science, cultural etc. With the downfall of Soviet Union in 1991, the cold war came to an end leaving a UNIPOLAR World order with the ascendancy of USA.
International diplomacy can be defined as an art of negotiations between nations so as to reduce their misunderstandings and work on building peace between them. The diplomacy doing the cold war era was dominated by following features -
Asserting the ideologies of Capitalism and Communism by showing how one system is leading to more welfare, prosperity and wealth for the nation. Eg: the arms race, space race etc between super powers.
Influencing the Third World Countries so as to tilt their balance towards either of the superpowers and bringing them under their sphere of influence. Eg: US interventions in Vietnam.
Showing the power of strength by building new and sophisticated weapons and by Space race. Eg: building of ICBMs, Cruise Missile, sending human on moon.
However, all these international developments changed with the downfall of USSR, and new patterns of international diplomacy arrived on stage. The ideological fight took a back seat in entirety and the national interests and international peace came to guide diplomacy.
Global Terrorism: The rise of ISIS as an international terror group capable of attacking numerous nations demands a coordinated approach of several countries as seen in combined efforts of USA, Iran, Iraq and Kurds.
Environment - The rising Global warming has become an international cause of concern demanding actions of several countries. Eg: Paris Climate Deal, ISA etc.
Economic - Though the post-cold war era witnessed the rise of Open Door economies across the world, but Protectionism is again rising its head in several countries like USA.
Social - The new issues of post-truth, Right Wing Extremism, cyber warfare, artificial intelligence etc have come to guide the world cooperation.
Thus, the new world has entered into a dynamic phase where disruptive technologies are hampering every traditional way of doing things. It demands a more dynamic approach, which is going to come in the world order after we come out of the present teething problems.
Critically examine the various dimensions and phases of the cold war between 1947 and 1962. [2005, 60 Marks]
What alliance did US built in East and South East Asia and in West Asia (Middle East)? SEATO, CENTO. South East Asian Treaty Organization. Central Treaty Organisation.
What response was from Soviet to SEATO and CENTO? Soviet Union and Communist China responded by having close relations with regional countries like North Vietnam, North Korea and Iraq.
With respect to Cuban Missile Crisis:
Name the countries involved: USSR, USA, Cuba
When and why did this emerge? In 1961. USSR feared that USA would invade communist ruled Cuba and overthrow Fidel Castro
What did USSR do? It placed nuclear missiles in Cuba making it a Russian base in 1962.
Could USA do a full-fledged war? What did it do? It couldn’t take on a war. US President Kennedy ordered American warships to intercept any Soviet Ships heading to Cuba.
If no war then what then was Cuban Missile Crisis? It was the high point of Cold War.
What was then Cold War? It referred to competition, tensions and series of confrontations between the USA and USSR backed by their respective allies.
Was cold war only a matter of power, military alliances and of balance of power? They were accompanied by real ideological conflict as well. One represented liberalism, democracy and capitalism while the other was committed to ideology of socialism and communism.
Why did it remain as Cold War and not turn into nuclear war? Both sides have the capacity to retaliate against an attack and to cause so much destruction that neither can afford to initiate the war. This is called of Logic of deterrence and this prevented the superpowers from attacking each other directly in NUCLEAR AGE. Yet this deterrence relationship prevents war and not rivalry.
What do you mean by responsible nation here? Both the nations understood the risks in fighting wars. They therefore restrained and avoided another war by thinking rationally and acting responsibly.
Although the smaller states were no match for the superpowers what interested these superpowers to have allies? Smaller states were helpful as:
Vital resources such as, oil and minerals.
Locations from where they could spy on each other.
Territory to launch weapons and troops.
Economic support as in many small states together could sum up for military expenses.
It also showed loyalty as victory of ideology – for US – Capitalist and for USSR- socialist.
Cold war did lead to shooting wars but it did not lead to another world war. Name some arenas where the cold war was played. Korea, Vietnam, Afghanistan, Congo.
If Cold war did not lead to war then what did it lead to? It led to stocking or arms. This was to constantly prepare themselves for war. THE COLD WAR LED TO ARMS RACE AND ARMS CONTROL.
It was feared that any nuclear accident could lead to end of world. Most importantly how could one find if it was an accident and not an attack? In this regard what did USA and USSR do? They decided to collaborate to limit or eliminate certain kinds of nuclear and non-nuclear weapons through arms control.
In 1960s they started with three agreements: LTBT; NPT; ABMT – Anti ballistic Missile Treaty.
Write short notes on various ARMS CONTROL TREATIES.
LTBT – Limited Test Ban treaty
Banned nuclear tests in atmosphere, outer space and under water
NPT – Nuclear Non Proliferation treaty
Only NWS (those who exploded prior to Jan 1, 1967) to possess Nuke Weapons
Only five Nuclear Weapon States – US, USSR, Britain, France, China
SALT – I & II - Strategic Arms Limitation Talks
Limitation of ABM systems
Limitation on Strategic Offensive arms (reduce warheads)
START – I & II – Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty
Reduction and Limitation of Strategic Offensive arms
Australia Group, an informal group of countries (now joined by the European Commission) was established in 1985 after the use of chemical weapons by Iraq in 1984. Its members are supposed to maintain export controls on a uniform list of several chemical compounds (& biological weapons).
The Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR) is a multilateral export control regime. It is an
informal and voluntary partnership among countries to prevent the proliferation of certain category of missile and unmanned aerial vehicle technology.
The Wassenaar Arrangement was established to contribute to regional and international security and stability by promoting transparency and greater responsibility in transfers of conventional arms and dual-use goods and technologies.
Nuclear Suppliers Group deals with nuclear fuel and supplies.
END OF THE COLD WAR AND US ASCENDANCY IN THE WORLD AS THE LONE SUPERPOWER
Unipolarity is used to describe the power structure when one superpower dominates alone. Unipolarity in international politics is a distribution of power in which one state exercises most of the cultural, economic and military influence.
Three features characteristics of Unipole:
Unipolarity is an interstate system and not an empire. Unipolarity implies the existence of many juridically equal non-states, something that an empire denies. In empires, inter-societal divide-and-rule practices replace interstate balance-of-power dynamics.
Unipolarity is anarchical. Anarchy results from the incomplete power preponderance of the unipole. A great power cannot exert a positive control everywhere in the world. Therefore, relatively weaker countries have the freedom to pursue policy preferences independent of the unipole. The power projection limitations of the unipole is a distinguishing characteristic between unipolar and hegemonic systems.
Unipolar systems possess only one great power and face no competition. If a competitor emerges, the international system is no longer unipolar. The United states is the only "pole" to possess global interests.
USA as Unipole after Cold War:
The end of the Cold War meant that the previous decades' superpower rivalry now had ended. There was no longer the "traditional" East vs West conflict.
America's victory in the Cold War in 1989 resulted in a new role that it had to play in international politics. In fact, the United States due to the effectiveness of its capitalist system and since it had propelled in fostering the economic recovery of its allies in Western Europe and Japan, it had also achieved great status as the world's only superpower.
Strategic restraint, thus, can be defined as a state’s self-imposed reticence in using military force for the attainment of its strategic objectives in a crisis or dispute.
0 Comments